TEED

Tallinna sadam
Tallinn pühapäev 1/11 kl 1630 - Helsingi pühapäev 1/11 klo 1900 Viking XPRS
Helsingi neljapäev 3/12 kl 1130 - Tallinn neljapäev 3/12 klo 1400 Viking XPRS

Helsingi sadam
Helsinki - Eurohostel, Finland     	01 Nov 09 - 02 Nov 09 = 1 Night 
Linnankatu 9 00160
Helsinki		Phone: +358-9-622 0470
Fax: +358-9-6220 4747
E-mail: eurohostel@eurohostel.fi
Opening hours: 24 hours a day

There is a 2,50 €/night discount for the accommodation for the holders of a valid HI card.
1 Bed(s) in Dorm male, Sheets & Towels included 	24.90 EUR 

Helsinki-Vantaa bussi 

35 minuuttia 
. 4€
Helsingin keskustasta liikennöi myös Finnairin City Bus. Aikataulut saat Finnairin internetsivuilta.

 	615	 	Helsinki - Lentoasema 		 
 	615N	 	Helsinki - Tammisto - Lentoasema 		 
 	615NK	 	Helsinki - Tammisto - Lentoasema 		 
 	615T	 	Helsinki - Kartanonkoski - Lentoasema 		 
 	615TK	 	Helsinki - Kartanonkoski - Lentoasema 
 HUOM! Helsingistä lähdettäessä ensimmäinen poistumispysäkki on Vantaalla, 
lentoasemalta tultaessa bussi pysähtyy Helsingin alueella vain jättäessään matkustajia pysäkille.
 
 Rautatientori, lait. 5 
VR - Rautatieasema Helsinki

Ma-pe 09.45T	  10.00   10.15T

Helsinki-Vantaa lentoasema
Terminaali: 1 
Lähtöselvitysalue: 101-114 
(Huom! 5.8. alkaen KLM:n lähtöterminaali on T1 ja tuloterminaali T2.)

Lähtöselvitysaika: 1 h (Lähtöselvitystavat: internet, lähtöselvitysautomaatti, tiskipalvelu)
 
Viivästyneet matkatavarat: p. 010 230 4120 (Servisair)
Lipunmyynti: p. 020 353 355
 
Baggage 2PC

02NOV		
 KL 1166 HELSINKI	AMSTERDAM
11:00	12:45	
 	
KL 0685	AMSTERDAM	MEXICO CITY	
14:40	19:30	 

01DEC	
KL 0686	MEXICO CITY	AMSTERDAM	
21:55	15:10	

02DEC	
KL 1171	AMSTERDAM	HELSINKI	
20:25	23:55	
 
November 2, 2009	9 Bed Male Dorm	$12.00 	€8.45
Hostel Condesa Chapultepec
Cozumel Street #53-A Col. Roma Norte
Mexico City, Mexico
Phone: +52 55 52-11-10-24
Email: hi.condesa-chapultepec@hotmail.com

To get to Hostel Condesa-Chapultepec from the Mexico City International Aiport Benito Juarez,
You should walk out of the airport to get to the "Terminal Aerea" subway station of the No. 5 line the yellow one, take Pantitlan station direction, 
when you get to Pantitlan station you shoud change to the No.1 line the pink one an thake Observatorio station direction, you should go down like n the niddle of the line at Sevilla station 
and walk from the Chapultepec avenue walk trough the Cozumel Street three blocks till you get to the Hostel at number 53A.

1. "Baja California"

   The western peninsula, which borders the U.S. state of California
   
   
   1. "Baja California" - Largest wine-producer state in Mexico, Baja California excels in both educational programs as well as diversity by having the largest population of Mexicans with European ancestry as well as communities from East Asia, the Middle East, South America and Indigenous descent.
      1. "Vallée des Cierges" Vallée des Cierges Coordinates: N29°19' 44.72' et 28°18'31.52 W114° 05' 05.28' 133° 26'31.25 La vallée des Cierges appartient à la ceinture désertique correspondant à l’hémisphère nord, qui se trouve dans la partie centrale de la péninsule de Basse-Californie. On y trouve des collines escarpées qui appartiennent à la sierra "San Borja" et des vallées très étendues telles que celle de "Montevideo" . D’une altitude qui varie de 200 à 1 400 msnm, cette vallée présente des sols de formation récente sans horizons définis (régosols et lithosols) et des sols anciens, typiques du désert, composés de couches d’argile, de sel ou de carbonate (sols très secs et sols stériles, inhabitables). Presque toute la région présente des sols de formation lithique, pierreuse et de gravier ainsi que de grandes étendues de sols de couches calciques, pétro-calciques et salines. La température moyenne annuelle est de l’ordre de 22º C sur le versant du golfe de Californie. Les précipitations pluviales sont peu abondantes et irrégulières, avec une moyenne annuelle de 80 mm. La région se trouve dans une zone de transition entre un climat méditerranéen et un climat tropical ; ces deux régimes climatiques se retrouvent sous une forme amoindrie dans la vallée des Cierges. Par contre, sur la côte du golfe de Californie, l’influence tropicale domine, ce qui provoque des étés pluvieux. En général, l’eau douce est très peu abondante. Les précipitations pluviales sont minimes et sporadiques, et les fleuves inexistants. On ne peut trouver que quelques points d’eau et des nappes aquifères d’eau saumâtre. La vallée des Cierges présente un heureux mélange de végétation. Les plantes du désert de Sonora y prédominent, bien que la présence de la végétation typique de la province floristique californienne soit significative. Trois des six sous-divisions du désert de Sonora y sont représentées. Les espèces dominantes sont sarcocaulescentes (plantes grasses à grosse tige), capables d’emmagasiner d’importantes quantités d’eau. La faune forestière typique de la vallée des Cierges comprend quatre groupes de vertébrés : amphibies, reptiles, oiseaux et mammifères. Ces derniers ne comptent pas moins de 77 sous-espèces, ce qui montre que la région en est un important centre de préservation. En ce qui concerne les aspects culturels, la vallée de Montevideo, située dans la partie nord de la région, renferme plusieurs peintures rupestres cochimíes, et dans le sud de la zone, on peut voir la mission de Saint-François de Borja Adac, érigée d’abord par les jésuites en 1762 et terminée par les dominicains en 1801 ; cette mission qui a été construite en pierre de taille est en très bon état de conservation.
      2. "Goiás"
   2. "Baja California Sur" - Southern Baja isn't just home for Los Cabos beach resort, it contains some relatively virgin beaches and intact landscapes due the the low population of the state.
      1. "Sierra de San Francisco" Rock Paintings of the Sierra de San Francisco (INAH) Rock Paintings of the Sierra de San Francisco State: Lower California Sud Municipality N27 39 20 W112 54 58.0 From c. 100 B.C. to A.D. 1300, the Sierra de San Francisco (in the El "Vizcaino" reserve, in Baja California) was home to a people who have now disappeared but who left one of the most outstanding collections of rock paintings in the world. They are remarkably well-preserved because of the dry climate and the inaccessibility of the site. Showing human figures and many animal species and illustrating the relationship between humans and their environment, the paintings reveal a highly sophisticated culture. Their composition and size, as well as the precision of the outlines and the variety of colours, but especially the number of sites, make this an impressive testimony to a unique artistic tradition. Sierra de San Francisco et ses peintures rupestres* [proposed for natural criteria] Coordinates: 24º 17’ 35“ et 27º 47’ 30'N113º 03’ 25' et 113º 00’ 57'W Description La sierra de San Francisco, qui se trouve dans la réserve de la biosphère El Vizcaíno, fait partie des grands massifs montagneux situés à l’est de la péninsule de Basse-Californie ; on y trouve aussi des collines isolées et d’autres formations. Cette sierra forme un ensemble de hauteurs tronquées et allongées de pente abrupte. Dans la réserve, les sierras constituent une unité géomorphologique. La configuration du relief de la zone s’est effectuée à partir d‘une accumulation de roches sédimentaires et volcaniques cénozoïques qui recouvrent partiellement une topographie préexistante de roches sédimentaires, intruses et métamorphiques mésozoïques. Cette sierra présente un processus de constante formation et de perte de sol ; en effet, le vent et la pluie déposent certaines substances sur les plaines, les sols ne sont pas assez développés et les processus édaphiques n’ont pas encore suffisamment agi pour que se forment des horizons ou couches d’accumulation. Le type de sol le plus fréquent est le terrain aride. Les précipitations sont très basses dans cette région : entre 50 et 70 mm ; à cela s’ajoute une évapotranspiration très élevée qui provoque un déficit d’eau pendant la moitié de l’année. La plupart des petits cours d’eau sont saisonniers et c’est seulement grâce à quelques averses que se forment des écoulements d’eau qui favorisent la formation de nappes d’eau et des oasis. Le type de végétation qui prévaut est le matorral (sarcocaule subinerme), qui se caractérise par la prédominance physionomique d’arbres et d’arbustes à taille épaisse, à croissance tortueuse, semi- juteux et de bois fragile ; on y trouve aussi quelques espèces d’arbres à écorce papyracée et exfoliante. Ce type d’association se rencontre sur des sols rocheux et rocailleux d’origine volcanique. Grâce à sa position géographique, la région du Vizcaíno est un centre de différenciation biologique ; bien qu’elle renferme peu d’espèces endémiques, son importance réside dans le grand nombre d’endémismes à niveau de sous-espèces, principalement mammifères et reptiles. Certaines espèces sont en danger et courent le risque d’extinction, par exemple : une variété de bélier (ovis canadensis), le renard gris, le puma, le cerf, le pigeon aux ailes blanches, l’aigle royal, la caille, les lapins et les lièvres forestiers, le coyote, le chat sauvage, la petite grenouille d’eau, et diverses variétés de petits lézards et de vipères, entre autres.
      2. El "Vizcaino" Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino Basse Californie Sud, Municipality of Mulege N27 47 32 W114 13 40 Located in the central part of the peninsula of Baja California, the sanctuary contains some exceptionally interesting ecosystems. The coastal lagoons of Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio are important reproduction and wintering sites for the grey whale, harbour seal, California sea lion, northern elephant-seal and blue whale. The lagoons are also home to four species of the endangered marine turtle
         • The Marine Programme: Related World Heritage Properties
         • Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Tourism at World Heritage Sites
         • Activities in Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino
         • Mar 7, 2000 President of Mexico Announces Decision to Halt Saltworks Project at World Heritage Site, El Vizcaino Whale Sanctuary
         • Dec 8, 1999 The Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino in Mexico Inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1993
         • May 25, 1999 Second letter from the Chairperson of the World Heritage Committee to the Environmental Groups concerning the Whale Sanctuary of El Viscaino (Mexico)
         • Dec 4, 1998 Letter from the Chairperson of the World Heritage Committee Concerning the Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino (Mexico)
         • Feb 24, 2006 - Feb 28, 2006 Mexico's World Heritage Sites Photographic Exhibition at UN Headquarters
         • Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO) (spanish only)
           
         • Natural site datasheet from WCMC
           
      3. "Gulf of California" Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California States of "Baja California", "Baja California Sur", "Sonora", "Sinaloa", and "Nayarit" N27 37 36.012 W112 32 44.988 The site comprises 244 islands, islets and coastal areas that are located in the Gulf of California in north-eastern Mexico. The Sea of Cortez and its islands have been called a natural laboratory for the investigation of speciation. Moreover, almost all major oceanographic processes occurring in the planet’s oceans are present in the property, giving it extraordinary importance for study. The site is one of striking natural beauty in a dramatic setting formed by rugged islands with high cliffs and sandy beaches, which contrast with the brilliant reflection from the desert and the surrounding turquoise waters. It is home to 695 vascular plant species, more than in any marine and insular property on the World Heritage List. Equally exceptional is the number of fish species: 891, 90 of them endemic. The site, moreover, contains 39% of the world’s total number of species of marine mammals and a third of the world’s marine cetacean species. Criterion (ix): The property ranks higher than other marine and insular World Heritage properties as it represents a unique example in which, in a very short distance, there are simultaneously “bridge islands” (populated by land in ocean level decline during glaciations) and oceanic islands (populated by sea and air). Moreover, almost all major oceanographic processes occurring in the planet’s oceans are present in the property, giving it extraordinary importance for the study of marine and coastal processes. These processes are indeed supporting the high marine productivity and biodiversity richness that characterize the Gulf of California. Criterion (vii): The serial property is of striking natural beauty and provides a dramatic setting due to the rugged forms of the islands, with high cliffs and sandy beaches contrasting with the brilliant reflection from the desert and the surrounding turquoise waters. The diversity of forms and colours is complemented by a wealth of birds and marine life. The diversity and abundance of marine life associated to spectacular submarine forms and high water transparency makes the property a diver’s paradise. Criterion (x): The diversity of terrestrial and marine life is extraordinary and constitutes a unique ecoregion of high priority for biodiversity conservation. The number of species of vascular plants (695) present in this serial property is higher than that reported in other marine and insular properties included in the WH List. The number of species of fish (891) is also highest when compared to a number of marine and insular properties. In addition the marine endemism is important, with 90 endemic fishes. The serial property contains 39% of the world’s total number of marine mammal’s species and a third of the world’s total number of marine cetacean’s species. In addition the serial property includes a good sample of the Sonora desert ecosystems, considered one of the richest deserts in the world from the desert biodiversity point of view.

2. "Northern Mexico"

   The expansive deserts and mountains of the border states; ignored by tourists, this is "Unknown Mexico" Northern Mexico is a vast desert region bordering the United States of America. The north is sometimes referred to as "unknown Mexico" or "lost Mexico" because it is ignored by the vast majority of tourists. States Cities Ciudad Juárez - home to the original "burrito", Juárez is also a practical entry point for Americans going to Copper Canyon. Creel- the tourist center of NW Mexico and an area that is increasingly compared to Moab UT for its excellent biking opportunities. Los Cabos - World-famous beach resort, Los Cabos also has the largest variety of restaurants in Northern Mexico and still practices at large local activities like fishing, diving and whale-watching. Monterrey - a large, vibrant young city, it is the center of industry in Mexico. Puerto Peñasco - originally called "Rocky Point" by the British, it is the nearest beach resort to Arizona. Saltillo - small city with colonial charm, capital of the state of Coahuila. Tampico - busy port city on the Gulf of Mexico. Tijuana - The north-westernmost city in Mexico, Tijuana is the world's most visited city thanks to easy policies on the U.S.- Mexico port of entry as well as the birthplace of Ceasar Salad and current avant-garde acts such as music project Nortec and art movement La Tercera Nación. Other destinations Copper Canyon- world famous for good reason. Isla Tiburon- the largest Island in Mexico, located in the Sea of Cortez and a part of the state of Sonora. Sierra del Carmen-- just across the river from Big Bend NP. This is the largest wilderness area in Latin America north of Patagonia. Owned and preserved by Monterrey's CeMex corporation (which has a strong tradition of conservation projects). No tourist infrastructure in place, but if you're self-sufficient this area is certainly worth exploring. Paquime - archaelogical site at Casas Grandes in a remote area of Chihuahua. Related to Pueblo culture of southwestern United States. Cuatro Cienegas - protected nature preserve with unique desert oasis ecosystem. Snorkling and swimming is allowed in some pools. Reserva de la Biosfera El Cielo - unusual subtropical rain forest in Tamaulipas, just a few hours drive south of U.S./Mexico border Understand This is not the tourist Mexico of the Colonial altiplano or the southern beach resorts. Rather the Norte is the Mexico of popular imagination. A place of Vaqueros, Horses and small towns, soaring mountains and sweeping deserts. But at the same time with some of the more modern cities in the country. Truly this is a very rich and virgin region. Visit Chihuahua or Coahuila and you will be far off the well worn gringo path. In many ways traveling to the north is like traveling through an old Western movie. Talk Get in Get around Northern Mexico has the best highway system in the country. Additionally, the area's sparse population means heavy traffic congestion is seldom an issue (outside of the Monterrey area). As a result, taking the bus or finding a few friends to carpool with are probably the best option for getting around. If you are short on time there are many regional flights between the larger cities. If you have plenty of time buying a horse or bicycle would really allow one to slow down and absorb the region's unique scenery, culture and lifestyle; it could be the travel experience of a lifetime. See Do Explore a largely overlooked area that is several times the size of Spain. Eat Fajitas - Chicken or meat strips usually marinaded with lemon, salt and Worcester sauce and often served as a burrito filling. Coyotas - Round, flat and oversized sugar cookies filled with brown sugar and traditionally prepared at Villa de Seris, Sonora. Tortillas de Harina - The most popular tortilla in Northern Mexico. Unlike corn tortillas, a traditional flour tortilla is at least twice the size of a corn tortilla. Machaca con huevo - Traditional scrambled beef and egg dish served with flour tortillas. Quesadillas - Tortillas grilled with white cheese and salsa. Burritos - flour tortilla wrapped around a wide variety of fillings. Chimichanga - a fried burrito usually filled with shredded chicken and covered by lettuce, sour cream and spicy sauce. Nachos - Snack consisting of fried tortilla chips covered with melted cheese and jalapeño peppers. Cabrito - Young goat. Ensalada Cesar - originated at Tijuana's Hotel Cesar, it's a romaine lettuce with croutons salad mixed with olive oil, sliced garlic, wine vinegar, lemon, raw egg yolks, parmesan cheese and Worcester sauce. Asado de chile colorado - Pork with ancho and guajillo chilies and cumin. Charro beans - Cowboy-style beans with bacon and chilies. Coahuila sausage' - Made of pork seasoned with ancho chiles. Enchiladas de olla - Ancho chili, tortillas, poblano and grated cheese. Menudo norteño - Tripe soup with ancho and guajillo chilies. Cajeta de membrillo - Carmelized milk candy flavored with quince. Empanadas de Santa Rita - Stuffed with pork fried with onions, almonds, raisins. Drink You might wish to try L.A. Cetto Wine, world-renowned wine produced in Baja California and known for its outstanding quality of Merlots and Cabernets.
   
   
   1. "Chihuahua" - The Biggest state in Mexico, Chihuahua served as the battle ground between federal and revolutionary forces led by Pancho Villa and has played a crucial role in the development of high-tech enterprises in Mexico. WARNING: As of May 2009, travel near all border areas of the United States and Mexico is dangerous. Rival narcotics gangs have increased violent activities against each other and against non-involved citizens. Chihuahua is a state in Northern Mexico. Regions The state is composed of desert plains in the east, and mountainous land (the Sierra Madre) in the west. A subsection of the Sierra Madre, the Sierra Tarahumara is considered by many to be the most rugged landscape in Mexico. Cities Chihuahua - The state capital, a modern city with a historical center. Juarez - Largest border city between the coasts. Creel - Backpacker mecca, gateway to the canyonlands. Ojinaga -- An ancient border town. Other destinations Basaseachi National Park, with Basaseachic Falls, Mexico's highest waterfall. Copper Canyon - One of the great natural attractions of Mexico. Beautiful scenery, hidden waterfalls, and timeless canyon villages. Cumbres de Majalca National Park - Erosion created this rock-climbers paradise in the forest between Chihuahua and Juarez. Lake Arareko Peguis Canyon - A dramatic geologic feature near Ojinaga in the area contiguous with Big Bend National Park across the Texas border. Madera a lumber town north of Creel on the edge of the Sierra. The canyon to the west of town besides being beautiful and a great area for hiking is also filled with numerous ancient cliff dwellings of Pueblo Indians. Understand Chihuahua is a vast area, the largest state in Mexico. Its area of 245,000km2 makes it roughly half the size of Spain or about the size of the UK. Transport costs can add up quickly in such a large rugged region. Talk A basic understanding of Spanish while not necessary will make your visit much smoother and more enjoyable. Those traveling in tour groups are often accompanied by an English speaking guide. Tarahumara living in remote areas will often speak only their native language and very limited Spanish. Get in By air Major airports are located in the cities of Chihuahua and Juarez, and in El Paso, just across the border from Juarez. By car From the United States Ports of entry from Texas are located at El Paso-Juarez and Presidio-Ojinaga. Entry from New Mexico is possible on US Route 6 south of Columbus at Puerto Palomas. Get around See Ancient cave-dwellings, at various sites near Casas Grandes and Paquime. Mennonite colony around Cuahtemoc - The largest in the world. Well known for a variety of farm products, especially its cheeses and apples. Do Rock-climbing and rappelling in the states many canyons and rock formations. Buy Chihuahua is not as well known for its crafts and artisans as some of the southern states that are generally preferred by tourists. But western wear (boots, hats, and shirts) as well as saddles and tack are of high quality and fairly priced. Finding appropriate sizes may be a challenge for some visitors. Pottery - Pottery made in the pueblo at Mata Ortiz is considered to be some of the best in the world. Cheese made by the Mennonites in the north of the state should also be tried and is famous throughout Mexico and the Southwest United States. Vanilla and tequila are good values and are worth taking home. Eat Burritos with various fillings. Caldo de oso - Spicy dish with chilies and fish. Empanadas de Santa Rita - Stuffed with pork fried with onions, almonds, raisins. Gorditas de cuajada - Small corn tortillas covered with butter, sugar, cinnamon, and egg and cooked in an orange leaf. Machaca con huevo - Traditional scrambled beef and egg dish served with flour tortillas. Quesadillas - Tortillas grilled with white cheese and salsa. Drink Some travellers report that tap water here is safe, but still most tourists play it safe and buy bottled water. Margaritas - This world-famous tequila concoction originated here in Juarez in 1942. Stay safe The canyonlands are intolerant of incompetence. This a harsh, rugged land with a dry climate that sees wild temperature extremes. Know your limits and abilities. Don't go out into remote areas alone. The money spent to hire local guides is nearly always well-spent. Guides can introduce you to the people living back in the remote barrancas. They can also explain the cultural history of the area and some are quite familiar with the flora and fauna of the area (note there is little remaining wild fauna other than birds). There are military checkpoints throughout remote sections of the state. Most soldiers are young but polite, all are heavily armed. There are also narcos in most remote sections of the Sierra Tarahumara. They are also heavily armed. Guides will know which sections should be avoided. The greatest danger is probably the terrain itself. The mountains aren't especially tall, but are very steep and rugged. It is easy to twist an ankle or break a wrist out here. Medical services are few and far between. Travel in large groups usually isn't practical because of the limited supplies available in the backcountry. Rather the preferred mode of travel would be to form small self supporting groups. Get out Take the time to continue south to Durango, another overlooked destination in the north of Mexico. Further south is Zacatecas, one of Mexico's most attractive cities.
      1. "Paquimé" Archaeological Zone of Paquimé, Casas Grandes Municipality of "Casas Grandes" , State of "Chihuahua" N30 22 32.988 W107 57 20.016 Paquimé, Casas Grandes, which reached its apogee in the 14th and 15th centuries, played a key role in trade and cultural contacts between the Pueblo culture of the south-western United States and northern Mexico and the more advanced civilizations of Mesoamerica. The extensive remains, only part of which have been excavated, are clear evidence of the vitality of a culture which was perfectly adapted to its physical and economic environment, but which suddenly vanished at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Criterion iii: Paquimé Casas Grandes bears eloquent and abundant testimony to an important element in the cultural evolution of North America, and in particular to prehispanic commercial and cultural links. Criterion iv: The extensive remains of the archaeological site of Paquimé Casas Grandes provide exceptional evidence of the development of adobe architecture in North America, and in particular of the blending of this with the more advanced techniques of Mesoamerica.
         • Paquimé (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia - INAH)(spanish only)
           
   2. "Coahuila" - Mexico's top mining state, Coahuila has also been a leader in modern policies such as offering civil unions to sex-same couples and like Baja California , also plays an important role in Mexico's wine production.
      1. "Cuatro Ciénegas" From Wikipedia: Cuatro Ciénegas is a city in the northern Mexican state of "Coahuila". It stands at 26°59′N 102°03′W, at an average elevation of 740 metres above sea level. The city serves as the municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name. It is located in the state's desert region (Región Desierto). Cuatro Ciénegas is Spanish for "four marshes"; the name was chosen by the first settlers because of the natural springs in the vicinity that create extensive areas of wetland and lakes. Several failed settlements were founded here prior to the successful establishment of a town by Antonio Cordero y Bustamante on 24 May 1800. The settlement's original name was Nuestra Señora de los Dolores y Cuatro Ciénegas, which was later changed to Villa Venustiano Carranza, before finally settling on its current name. The city is formally known as Cuatro Ciénegas de Carranza, in honour of its most famous son: Venustiano Carranza, President of Mexico from 1915 to 1920, who was born there in 1859. The municipality reported 12,154 inhabitants in the year 2000 census. Cuatro Ciénegas Biosphere Reserve Cuatro Ciénegas is an official Mexican biological reserve. The biological reserves are small ecosystems with unique fauna and flora that are highly protected by government authorities. Recently, NASA stated that the biological reserve of Cuatrociénegas could have strong links to discovering life on Mars, since the adaptability of bioforms in the region was unique in the world. There are some 150 different plants and animals endemic to the valley and its surrounding mountains (e.g., Fouquieria shrevei and Terrapene coahuila), including some 30 aquatic species in the Reserve, eight of which are fish (e.g., Herichthys minckleyi). Live stromatolites inhabit Cuatro Ciénegas' pools. These are cyanobacteria colonies, extinct in most of the world, linked to the origin of an oxygen rich atmosphere over 3 billion years ago. A tiny copepod crustacean, Leptocaris stromatolicolus, is known only from the interstices of these stromatolites and bottom sediments in the saline pools. Several environmental conservation leaders are working to protect the valley, including Pronatura Noreste. The organization owns a private reserve, called Pozas Azules, and has several ongoing projects that include the protection of native species, including stromatolites and the eradication of invasive flora and fauna, as well as community development and water efficient agriculture combined with organic techniques. Drying Out? Scientists working in the basin and some local residents claim to have observed reduced spring discharge and a decrease in surface water in the Cuatro Ciénegas Basin (CCB) in recent years, although these changes have not been well documented in the scientific literature. Some have blamed the possible drying out on changes in climate and others have ascribed it to the introduction of large scale agriculture in adjacent valleys over the past two decades. Valeria Souza, an ecology professor and researcher at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, found that based on genetic studies of microbes in the CCB and surrounding valleys, the aquifer extends far beyond the CCB and includes adjacent valleys.[1] She published her results in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in April 2006. Regarding the source of drying out, she wrote: "Similar to situations occurring with increasing frequency in various arid regions of the world, agricultural development and associated water extraction in the region have placed new pressures on the ecological integrity of the unique ecosystems of Cuatro Ciénegas." Research by hydrogeologist Brad Wolaver at the University of Texas at Austin, now at Flinders University, also found evidence that the aquifer supplying the water that emerges at the surface of the Cuatro Ciénegas Basin extends far beyond the basin and thus is potentially impacted by agricultural water extraction in adjacent valleys. Aire de protection de la flore et de la faune Cuatrociénegas Le territoire de cette réserve s’étend essentiellement sur la partie basse et plate de la vallée de Cuatrociénegas, à une altitude d’environ 740 mètres au-dessus du niveau de la mer ; il peut, cependant, atteindre 2 100 mètres dans la sierra de la Madera située dans la partie nord-ouest de la réserve. Cette vallée comprend des canyons et de vastes sillons, des plaines alluviales saturées de sels, quelques basses collines, et une aire importante de dunes de gypse, unique dans son genre au Mexique. Le complexe hydrologique qui existe dans cette zone est interconnecté essentiellement de manière souterraine, mais aussi par des fleuves et des canaux artificiels à la superficie. Il existe quelque cinq cents sources qui forment des nappes d’eau, des marécages, des rivières et des ruisseaux, des marais et des lagunes de diverses dimensions et profondeurs. Le site ressemble à un aquarium dans le désert mexicain ; c’est également un endroit qui permet la réalisation de recherches de base et de recherches appliquées, l’exécution d’activités éducatives à tous les niveaux, et la récréation à l’air libre. La vallée n’a pratiquement souffert aucun changement depuis plus de 12 000 ans. L’isolement géographique provoqué par les montagnes qui l’encerclent a favorisé l’évolution indépendante de divers groupes d’organismes. Ce site est considéré comme une des plus importantes régions marécageuses dans le pays, car elle dispose d’un endémisme très élevé pour la région néarctique ; il se présente également un nombre considérable d’interactions entre les espèces endémiques. Cette zone renferme des groupes de faunes endémiques qui sont associés entre eux : reptiles, amphibies, poissons, crustacés, scorpions, mollusques et autres invertébrés, ainsi qu’une quantité considérable d’espèces placées sous quelque statut de conservation. Les espèces endémiques de la région se distribuent entre neuf reptiles, un amphibie, dix poissons, huit crustacés, sept scorpions, treize mollusques, quatre insectes et vingt-cinq plantes vasculaires. La végétation qui prédomine sur le sol du bassin est l’herbage halophile et la végétation aquatique ; les dunes de gypse abritent des espèces endémiques de plantes gypsophiles ; le sol est également recouvert de matorral xérophile et de matorral de type montagneux dans les parties les plus élevées. Le marécage offre en outre les valeurs suivantes : il garantit le fonctionnement de l’écosystème, il conserve les réserves d’eau souterraine et de superficie qui sont mises à profit à des fins agricoles, récréatives, d’élevage et d’éducation de l’environnement. Les zones où s’accumule l’eau présentent des sols de nature aride et gypseuse et des sols lacustres ou alluviaux très alcalins, de type solontchak.
         • Cuatro Ciénagas: municipal webpage
         • Cuatro Ciénagas: tourism and attractions
         • Pronatura Noreste in the Chihuahuan Desert
         • Cuatrociénagas, Desert Fishes Council
         • Cuatrociénegas Scientific Research Center / Centro de Investigación Científica de Cuatrociénegas
      2. "Goiás"
   3. "Nuevo León" - Mexico's industrial heartland, Nuevo León is home to world-renowned companies Cemex, Bimbo and Femsa (Coca-cola in Latin America) and represents 11% of Mexico's GDP, placing the state's living standard higher than European countries such as Hungary or Slovakia.
      1. "Monterrey" 's Industrial Facilities: Foundry, Brewery and Glassworks Coordinates: 25°40'11" N - 100°18'26" W Within the national and Latin American context, the city of Monterrey stands out as a thriving industrial centre. During the XIX century it had a close relationship with the United States, which resulted in a growing economy and eventually, from 1890 to 1910, in a great industrialisation process, which spawned an important group of regional entrepreneurs that is still very much at work. Monterrey's Iron and Steel Foundry is evidence of this process. It spreads over 113 hectares including various facilities built from 1910, when it was founded, to 1986, when it closed down. These facilities include the general offices, director's house, Steel School, model, carpentry and electrical workshops, model and oil storage rooms, an oxygen plant, the bronze and wheel smelting unit, machinery rooms, electric generator and converter plants, the High Furnace glassblowers and a combination mill. By 1903 most of the facilities were up and running thanks to the initiative of local families and a small amount of French, Spanish and U.S. capital. Due to the expansion of train lines, there was a large demand at the national level for products from this industrial centre, such as steel rods, metal sections, train rails and wheels, as well as steel structures. Around 1910 nearly two thousand workers were employed in various areas in the foundry. By 1986 this industry had become the symbol of the city of Monterrey, and was responsible for a large percentage of the gross national product, therefore benefiting many families. In more recent times the industrial complex was fitted as a large Cultural Centre, with an Arts Centre, an auditorium, a f4m library, a library, bookstores specialising in art and industry, an ecological reserve, the Museum of Technology and a Business Centre. Cuauhtémoc Brewery and the Glassworks have a common origin. The former was founded in 1890, and eventually glass bottles had to be produced to satisfy an increasing demand. Thus, the Monterrey Glassworks Company was born in 1909. Cuauht6moc Brewery was established north of the city of Monterrey, spreading over 20 hectares, and construction finished around 1905. Architect Ernest C. Jansen designed the Brewery facilities, which included an area for steam boilers that produce 565 tons of ice per year, as well as a General Workshop of Industrial Technique, used for repair and maintenance of all machinery and equipment. In 1977 some adaptations were made to the Brewery and the Monterrey Museum, now closed, was created for the display of national and international contemporary painting. Monterrey Glassworks Company spreads over nearly 90,000 square metres and all its facilities were built mainly with brick and iron sheets. The Glassworks has an office area, calcining and bottle-making furnaces, crystallisation tanks, an area for the reduction of sodium sulphate, a lime deposit, large steam boilers, two raw material mills and bottle-making machinery. Prior to the European foundation of the city, there was no established population, instead consisting of indigenous semi-nomad groups that are collectively called Chichimecas. Carved stone and cave painting in surrounding mountains and caves have allowed historians to identify four major groups of Chichimecas in present-day Monterrey: "Azalapas" , "Huachichiles" , "Coahuiltecos" and "Borrados" .
      2. "Goiás"
   4. "Sonora" - Quintessentially northern in lifestyle and traditions, Sonora was the original destiny for European immigrants during the Mexican gold rush in late 1800s, same immigrants that would later spread into the rest of northern Mexico. Sonora also generates the most extreme temperatures throughout Mexico, with snow covering the peaks of Sierra Madre Occidental during winter and heat waves reaching 50 degrees celcius during the summer. The Seris are an indigenous group of the Mexican state of Sonora. The majority reside on the Seri communal property (Spanish, ejido), in the towns of "Punta Chueca" (Seri "Socaaix" ) and "El Desemboque" (Seri "Haxöl Iihom" ) on the mainland coast of the Gulf of California. "Tiburón Island" ( "Tahejöc" ) and "San Esteban Island" ( "Cofteecöl" and sometimes "Hast" ) were part of their traditional territory, but some Seris also lived in various places on the mainland.
      1. Historic Town of "Alamos" Coordinates: 27°01’16” N ; 108°56’02” W 410 mt. A.s.l. Municipality of Alamos of Sonora State, Mexico This mining town was established in the second half of the XVII century, and was originally called Real de la Limpia Coticepci6ii or Real de los Frailes by its Spanish founders. The town was laid out following the topography of the land. Its winding roads and alleys create interesting and attractive views from different angles that complement the town's unique architecture. There are two plazas in the city centre: the Plaza de Armas, or main plaza, which is a large open area with gardens and trees, and which is surrounded by the town's most characteristic buildings, and the Alameda. The most outstanding features of the town of Alamos are its arcades, its XVIII century vernacular Colonial architecture, and the harmonic integration of XIX century buildings. The town has preserved to a great extent a uniform appearance. Two architectural plans can be identified. The first one is characteristic of the XVII and XVIII centuries and its main feature is an arcade on the street side; the other plan does not include an arcade and is a reflection of )UX and XX century architectural concepts. The Area of Historic Monuments in the town of Alamos spreads over 0.8' ) square kilometres, and comprises 70 city blocks with 188 buildings dating from the XVII to the XIX centuries. Their architectural solutions, morphological elements and urban image are the result of different building stages, but yet, together, they constitute a harmonic whole.
      2. Réserve de la Biosphère El "Pinacate" et le Grand désert d’Altar Coordinates: 31º 30’ et 32º 30’N 113º 00’ et 114º 30’ W En termes physiographiques et géomorphologiques, cette réserve s’étend à l’extrême nord-ouest de la plaine côtière du golfe de Californie, dans la vaste province physiographique du désert de Sonora situé en Amérique du nord. Dans toute la zone, l’élévation du terrain va de 200 à 1 200 msnm. Les formations géologiques très variées sont de nature différente, ce qui permet d’observer des ensembles volcaniques avec des cratères, des cônes de cendres et des écoulements de lave ; des dunes de sable consolidées et mobiles ; des lits de rivières et un éventail d’alluvions ; des pentes et des plages très étendues et des massifs montagneux de basalte et de granite. Tout ceci permet une grande variété d’habitats et une grande richesse biologique et de paysage. Cette région se caractérise par de faibles précipitations pluviales, des températures élevées en été, une intense radiation solaire, une humidité relativement faible et une forte évaporation. Le climat est considéré excessif, très aride ou désertique avec de fortes pluies en hiver. Les températures enregistrées dans cette région sont les plus élevées de l’hémisphère nord, avec un maximum de 56,7º Celsius. En termes hydrologiques, la réserve fait partie du bas bassin du fleuve Sonoyta avec ses nombreux lits de rivière éphémères, ses réservoirs d’eau en forme de bassin naturel creusé dans la roche et des espèces de réceptacles d’eau, tout ceci représentant l’unique source d’eau de surface permanente dans la zone. La présence de plus de 560 espèces de plantes vasculaires est une des principales valeurs biologiques de la réserve qui est rendue possible grâce aux conditions climatiques et physiques de la région ; celle-ci acquiert encore plus d’importance si l’on considère le degré élevé d’endémismes, particulièrement dans la zone des dunes. Malgré les conditions inhospitalières de la région, tous les groupes de vertébrés supérieurs y sont représentés. On a enregistré 41 espèces de mammifères, 237 variétés d’oiseaux, 42 de reptiles, quatre espèces d’amphibie et quatre de poissons d’eau douce. wikipedia: La Reserva de la Biosfera El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar, también conocida como el Pinacate, es una reserva de la biosfera gestionada por el Gobierno Federal de México, en concreto por la Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT), en colaboración con el gobierno del estado de Sonora. Se encuentra en el desierto de Sonora en el noroeste de México, al este del Golfo de California, en la parte más oriental del Gran Desierto de Altar, justo debajo de la frontera de Arizona, y al norte de la ciudad de Puerto Peñasco, Mexico. Es una de las más notablemente visibles formaciones terrestres en Norte América vistas desde el espacio. Un sistema volcánico, conocido como Santa Clara forma gran parte del paisaje, incluidos tres picos, el Pinacate, Carnegie, y Medio. Los Picos del Pinacate (Sierra Pinacate) son un grupo volcánico de picos volcánicos y conos de ceniza, se encuentran localizados al norte del centro de recreativo de Puerto Peñasco. Los más altos de los picos son Cerro del Pinacate (también llamó Volcan Santa Clara), la elevación 3,904 pies (1,190 m). La palabra española mexicana pinacate proviene de la palabra Nahuatl para el escarabajo endemico del desierto mion, pinacatl. Los volcanes han hecho erupción esporádicamente desde hace aproximadamente 4 millones de años. La actividad más reciente fue hace aproximadamente 11,000 años. En 1698, el padre Eusebio Kino, fundador de la Misión de San Xavier del Bac al sur de Tucson, Az, visit el lugar regresando en varias ocasiones. A partir de 1965 hasta 1970, la NASA envió a sus astronautas aquí para entrenarse para futuras excursiones lunares dada las semejanzas del terreno con la superficie lunar. Los gobiernos mexicano y de Sonora mantienen una reserva de biosfera que incluye los Picos de Pinacate (Ver Pinacate y el Desierto de Altar).
         • Vista del volcán Pinacate Foto satélite de la NASA.
         • Satellite Image of Pinacate
         • Sierra Pinacate a Volcanic Wonder
         • Global Volcanism Program: Pinacate
         • NASA Information and Satellite Image - Pinacate
   5. "Tamaulipas" - Strongly focused on export-oriented manufacturers (i.e. maquiladoras), the average wage for an employee in Tamaulipas is the highest in Mexico, making Tamaulipas also a leader in education with minimal illiteracy compared to other states.
      1. "Goiás"
   6. "Sinaloa" Cities Culiacán -- The city of the agricultural (and narco) businesses Los Mochis -- "The entrance" to the Copper canyon Mazatlan -- A Beach resort El Fuerte -- A Colonial gem Sinaloa is rather like the country of Chile in that it is a long narrow strip of land with ocean on its west and mountains in the east. As a result there are a lot of overlooked beaches and mountain playgrounds for those willing to get off the beaten path and explore a bit.
      1. Historic Town The Royal of the Eleven Thousand Virgins of "Cosala" in "Sinaloa" Coordinates: N24° 44' W107° 30' 27' The conquest of northwest Mexico had distinctive characteristics because the limits of the area known as Mesoamerica and the beginning of Aridoamerica met there. This lead to the establishment during colonial times of four types of settlements strongly interlinked: prisons, towns where the Spaniards lived, mining towns and Jesuit missions, the last provided mining towns with food supplies and other articles. During the viceroyalty, mining was the main economic activity in the northwest, therefore, the most important towns in the region originated by this trade were located on the Sierra Madre Occidental, and among them was Cosalá, founded on March 13 1562. With the settlement of the conquerors as of the XVI century, exploitation of mines located around Guadalupe de los Reyes, San José de las Bocas and Cosalá started, the last became in the XIX century the most important in this region, and in 1898 it became the most famous because it produced 50% of the silver exported by the State of Sinaloa. Cosalá was named Royal Mines by the Spanish authorities, and it also was a trade exchange center for the rest of the mines located near by. The church seat and the military authorities were also there, together with the Assay House. Through the years, the city became very important and in 1826 it was named the capital of the Western State that included the present states of Sonora and Sinaloa in Mexico, and Arizona in the United States. Surrounded by mountains, which are an integral part of its urban image, Cosalá has three clearly differentiated areas in its monument zone: the historical downtown area, La Canela and the Llano de Carrera neighborhoods. Because of its topography the historical downtown area consists of a totally irregular geomorphic design, the essence of which has been kept up to now, creating streets and side streets that end unexpectedly to surprise us with beautiful corners and visual ends everywhere. The value of its architecture is fundamentally provided by the characteristics it has as a whole: constructions lined to its streets, with adobe walls that end in a molding between the wall and the roof tiles provide a constant and marked homogeneity to their image; the use of materials found in the region such as beam, reed and bamboo roofs, with mud and tiles, is an evidence of how the architecture in the town is fully integrated to nature. The more than one-meter wide adobe walls, in some cases, work as thermal insulation for temperature changes. While in the historical downtown area houses are aligned to the street and have arched patios inside, at Llano de la Carrera their architecture corresponds to the typological characteristics of the rural architecture of the northwest of Mexico: constructions backed from the street alignment, with a tiled porch at the front and another one inside, and a central body that corresponds to the rooms.

3. "Pacific"

   Tropical beaches on Mexico's southern coast Cities Ixtapa Morelia Oaxaca Playa Troncones Puerto Vallarta Uruapan
   
   
   1. "Jalisco" State
      1. "Tequila Volcano" Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila Valles Region, Jalisco State N20 51 47 W103 46 43 The 34,658 ha site, between the foothills of the Tequila Volcano and the deep valley of the Rio Grande River, is part of an expansive landscape of blue agave, shaped by the culture of the plant used since the 16th century to produce tequila spirit and for at least 2,000 years to make fermented drinks and cloth. Within the landscape are working distilleries reflecting the growth in the international consumption of tequila in the 19th and 20th centuries. Today, the agave culture is seen as part of national identity. The area encloses a living, working landscape of blue agave fields and the urban settlements of Tequila, "Arenal" , and "Amatitan" with large distilleries where the agave ‘pineapple' is fermented and distilled. The property is also a testimony to the "Teuchitlan" cultures which shaped the Tequila area from AD 200-900, notably through the creation of terraces for agriculture, housing, temples, ceremonial mounds and ball courts. Visit this special achaeological site of 'los ' "guachimontones" in Teuchitlán. Teuchitlán represents one of the first settlement systems with a civilised lifestyle in this area. The circular structures, over two thousand years old are found in the midst of the central valleys of Jalisco. Travel one and a half hours to the west of "Guadalajara", in an area surrounded by hills and mountains to find these great archaeolgical ruins. Take in a visit to the excellent museum and free guide through the archaeological site to learn of the homesteads, temples and artifacts of these ancient peoples. In the afternoon we will visit a restaurant on the lake side for lunch.
         • Cultural Landscape
         • Jul 20, 2006 UNESCO Courier, Virtual visit to five new World Heritage Sites
         • Jul 12, 2006 Giant panda sanctuaries and Tequila-producing area of Mexico among the eight new sites added to World Heritage List
         • The UNESCO Courrier
           
      2. "Ahualulco" From the Guadalajara periférico or ring road, take highway 15 (Nogales and Tepic) 25 kilometers to highway 70, which heads southwest towards Ameca. This is only accessible from the libre, so don't get on the cuota (toll road). Go about 17 kilometers until you come to the big sugar refinery on the road at the Tala turnoff. Continuing towards Ameca about 1.5 km, turn right onto the road heading for Teuchitlán and Ahualulco. From this turnoff, it's 27 kilometers to Ahualulco. Just past the town, turn left onto the scenic highway to Ameca. Drive 13 kilometers to the hikers' parking spot at 13 Q 600865 2283421 (GPS UTM coordinates with WGS84 datum) and climb the stairs. If you have a bicycle or a horse, drive another kilometer south to the second parking area and start up the wide "trail" which ends at the amphitheater. Walk another 400 meters north to find the stone balls scattered round about 13 Q 598199 2284120. The biggest stone ball, according to the UDG, is right in this area at 13 Q 598163 2284135 (if they were using WGS84 as a datum, which is not mentioned). The drive from Guadalajara to the parking area takes about an hour and the hike about an hour and a half (if you do nothing but walk). Bring along plenty of water.
      3. "Huitzilapa" El mayor entierro asociado a tradición de las tumbas de tiro fue encontrado en 1993, en Huitzilapa (Jalisco).1
      4. "Etzatlán" es un pueblo y municipio de la Región Valles del estado de Jalisco, México. Toponimia Su nombre viene del Azteca "eztli atl tlan", lo que se interpreta como: "Lugar de agua como sangre". Aunque algunos investigadores afirman que procede de las palabras náhuatl "Etzalli" y "Tlan", que significa: "Lugar de cocimiento hecho de granos de maíz o granos de frijol". Historia Los primeros pobladores fueron restos de aztecas y toltecas. Aquellos predominaban en Oconahua y Otatlán, hoy San Marcos; hacia el lado de San Juanito llamado el Cuaneizte de Xochitepec, habitaban los caxcanes y algunos chichimecas. Hubo un guerrero llamado Goajotzin o Huejotzin, el más feo y cruel de la tribu. Los aborígenes llegaron a temerle y se deshicieron de él mandándolo a Ahualulco. Los Tarascos, después de sostener durante diez años sangrientas guerras con sus vecinos indígenas, sojuzgaron a Colliman, Tonalán y otras regiones, entre las que se encontraba Etzatlán. A la llegada de los españoles gobernaba Etzatlán, el cacique de Coyulán a fines de 1524. Hallándose Francisco Cortés de San Buenaventura en Ameca, tuvo noticias del señorío de Etzatlán a donde se dirigió y fue muy bien recibido. Dio el pueblo en encomienda a Juan de Escárcena y a Pedro de Villofrío. Por su parte, Nuño de Guzmán llegó al lugar en 1530, tributándose gran recibimiento. Como quisiese añadir a sus conquistas el poblado, se le opuso Juan de Escárcena. Era encomendero Antonio de las Casas cuando, en 1534, comenzó el convento fray Francisco Lorenzo, dicho convento se concluyó en época del tercer encomendero Diego López de Zúñiga. Los belicosos coanes empezaron entonces a hostilizar a los nuevos cristianos, llegando en sus correrías hasta cerca de Etzatlán. El capitán Diego Vázquez de Buendía se vio precisado a intervenir en su defensa. En 1541 pasó por el lugar Pedro de Alvarado, durante la Gran Rebelión de este año. En noviembre de 1858 la plaza fue sitiada por el coronel Sánchez de Román; la defendieron 15 hombres que desde las torres, durante dos días, detuvieron el avance de los atacantes. Perecieron en la defensa Gabriel y Rafael Cárdenas y el jefe de los defensores Norberto Cerritos; al irrumpir los sitiadores incendiaron el convento y algunas casas. En 1860 la plaza fue nuevamente tomada por Antonio Rojas. El 2 de junio de 1914, entraron al poblado las primeras avanzadas de Julián Medina. Incendiaron la casa municipal. Durante junio y parte de julio del mismo año, fue residencia oficial del Gobierno Constitucionalista de Jalisco, representado por el Gral. Manuel M. Diéguez, éste instaló las oficinas en la casa de Heliodoro Romero. En ese mismo año llegan a este lugar el Gral. Álvaro Obregón y Lucio Blanco. En 1537 se le concede título de Villa y el 3 de marzo de 1891 se elevó en la categoría de ciudad; en 1853 se establece ayuntamiento en Etzatlán, fue cabecera del 5° Cantón del estado. Descripción geográfica Ubicación Etzatlán se localiza al centro poniente del estado, en las coordenadas: al norte 20°59´, al sur 20°39´ de latitud norte; al este 104°03´, al oeste 104°15´de longitud oeste. El municipio colinda al norte con el estado de Nayarit y el municipio de Magdalena; al este con los municipios de Magdalena, San Juanito Escobedo y Ahualulco de Mercado; al sur con los municipios de Ahualulco de Mercado y Ameca; al oeste con el municipio de San Marcos y el estado de Nayarit. Orografía Su superficie está conformada por zonas planas (40%), zonas semiplanas (23%) y zonas accidentadas (27%). Se encuentran tierras de labor y cerros, con alturas entre los 1,350 y los 2,100 metros sobre el nivel del mar. Al norte existe una zona boscosa integrada por los cerros: Los Vértigos, La Ciénega, Santa Lucía, Los Húmedos, Los Diablitos y Cerro Grande; al sur se localizan los cerros: El Cusco, La Rosilla, Bola Alta y Los Pericos. Suelos. El municipio está constituido por materiales clasificados como intensiva ácida con algunos lugares de toba y conglomerados, existiendo algunos lunares con basalto y en menor proporción se encuentra brecha volcánica y andesita. La composición de los suelos es de tipos predominantes Regosol Eutrico en la parte norte y sur del municipio, encontrándose manchas de Acrisol Húmico y Feozem Háplico. Tiene una superficie territorial de 30,627 hectáreas, de las cuales 8,611 son utilizadas con fines agrícolas, 9,899 en la actividad pecuaria, 8,100 son de uso forestal, 309 son suelo urbano y 3,708 hectáreas tienen otro uso. En lo que a la propiedad se refiere, una extensión de 8,059 hectáreas es privada y otra de 22,568 es ejidal; no existiendo propiedad comunal. Hidrografía Sus recursos hidrológicos son proporcionados por los arroyos: Santa Lucía, El Trapichillo, El Chan. Amolco y Santa Rosalía que vierten sus aguas en la presa del mismo nombre y Corta Pico que alimenta, al norte, la presa Tepec; al sur se encuentran El Tecomatán, El Nogal Colorado, El Naranjo y las Canoas. Clima El clima es semiseco, con otoño e invierno secos, y semicálido, sin cambio térmico invernal bien definido. La temperatura media anual es de 21.7, con máxima de 29.1°C y mínima de 14.3°C. El régimen de lluvias se registra en junio, julio y agosto, contando con una precipitación media de los 835.8 milímetros. Los vientos dominantes son en dirección del suroeste. Flora y fauna El nogal es parte de la flora del lugar Su vegetación está compuesta por zonas boscosas donde hay pino, encino, roble y nogal. Además hay especies frutales como: ciruela, durazno y mango. El coyote, la zorra, el conejo, el venado, el zorrillo y el tlacuache habitan esta región. Economía Agricultura: Se cultiva maíz, frijol, sorgo, garbanzo, trigo, avena y chile morrón. Ganadería: Se cría ganado bovino, porcino y equino; además de aves y colmenas. Industria: Se fabrica loza fina, pinturas, vidrio, ropa y se cuenta con la planta productora de forrajes. Minería: Se extrae plata, cobre, plomo, zinc, manganeso, barita, caolín y cuarzo. Comercio: Predominan los giros dedicados a la venta de productos de primera necesidad y los comercios mixtos que venden en pequeña escala artículos diversos. Servicios: Cuenta con servicios financieros, profesionales, técnicos, comunales, sociales, turísticos y de mantenimiento. Turismo Artesanías Elaboración de: huaraches, madera, sillas de tule, muebles típicos y sillas de montar. Lagos y lagunas Laguna Palo Verde. Huantepec. Sitios históricos Mineral El Amparo. Hacienda de Santa Clara. La tumba de tiro más conocida es la de Etzatlán (El Arenal (Jalisco)) , con tres cámaras y 16 metros de profundidad. Palacio de Ocomo (en Oconahua). El Peñol (en Santa Rosalía)
      5. Hospicio Cabañas "Guadalajara" Jalisco, Guadalajara N20 40 26 W103 20 23 The Hospicio Cabañas was built at the beginning of the 19th century to provide care and shelter for the disadvantaged – orphans, old people, the handicapped and chronic invalids. This remarkable complex, which incorporates several unusual features designed specifically to meet the needs of its occupants, was unique for its time. It is also notable for the harmonious relationship between the open and built spaces, the simplicity of its design, and its size. In the early 20th century, the chapel was decorated with a superb series of murals, now considered some of the masterpieces of Mexican art. They are the work of José Clemente Orozco, one of the greatest Mexican muralists of the period. The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the Hospicio Cabañas is a unique architectural complex, designed to respond to social and economic requirements for housing the sick, the aged, the young, and the needy, which provides an outstanding solution of great subtlety and humanity. It also houses one of the acknowledged masterpieces of mural art.
      6. Historic Town of "San Sebastián del Oeste" Coordinates: 20°45'30" N - 104°51'30" W On January 20 1605, the mines of San Sebastián del Oeste were discovered, and consequently, the town was founded. Since then, the town has had a close relationship with its surroundings, which cover more than 1,970 square kilometres. The town itself now spreads over 37 partially settled hectares. San Sebastian del Oeste was one the main mining centres in the New Spain during the Colonial period. By 1785, ten gold and silver reduction haciendas and nearly 30 mines had been established there. The small town became a city in 1812, and reached its full maturitv around 1830. San Sebastian's productivity was halted by the 1910 military revolution, and soon after, foreign companies in charge of mining works moved to other areas. The last mine was abandoned 1921, and San Sebastian fell into complete oblivion. Nowadays, its main economic activities involve agriculture, stockbreeding, increasing tourism and to a lesser degree, forestry. The rough topography of the land only allowed for an irregular lay out following a main east-west axis. The town is crossed by a river, on whose banks several XVIII and XIX century foundries were established. Building materials and structural solutions inherited from traditional Spanish architecture resulted in the use of large retaining walls and baseboards to protect buildings from moisture. Features such as public squares, like the Main Plaza and the Consistorial or Bone Plaza, winding alleyways, original stone pavements, plastered mud-brick walls, archways, attics and wooden and tile roofs are part of an integrated typology and constitute the town's distinctive traits. The southern part of town is on higher ground, and from here a series of terraces offer a panoramic view of the downhill succession of roofs belonging to buildings dating to the XVII, XVIR and XIX centuries, most of which are still in good condition. The natural context (flora and fauna) is likewise an extremely important feature of this site. To this day, it remains almost in pristine condition, and is a perfect complement to the town's urban image. Ravines, hills, trees, etc., along with the town's lay out and architecture are part of one harmonic whole. San Sebastian del Oeste is a clear example of the important role played by the environment in shaping the urban image of rural settlements.
      7. "San Andrés Cohamiata" is an autonomously governed Wixárika (Huichol) village located in "Mezquitic" , Jalisco, Mexico. The village is called "Tatei Kié" in the native Wixárika language. Other Wixárika ceremonial centers that share similar autonomous governments include: "Santa Catarina Cuexcomatitián" ( "Tuapurie" ), "San Sebastián Teponahuaxtlán" ( "Wautüa" ) and "Tuxpan de Bolaños" ( "Tutsipa" This village is located at 21.5229 degrees latitude North and 104.0047 degrees longitude West. It rests at an altitude of 1,120 meters (3,674 feet)above sea level. According to the 2005 census, the village had a population of 944 inhabitants.) which are all in the state of Jalisco, and "Guadalupe Ocotán" ( "Xatsitsarie" ) in the state of Nayarit. The Huichol claim that they originated in the State of San Luis Potosí but later migrated westward to the parts of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango in which the rugged Sierra of the Huichol is found. Once yearly, some Huichol journey back to San Luís, their ancestral homeland to perform "Mitote" Peyote (Hikuri, in Wixarika) ceremonies. The three main Huichol communities belong to the municipality of Mezquitic, Jalisco . Other Wixarika communities include Guadalupe Ocotán (in Nayarit), and Santa Catarina and Tuxpán de Bolaños in Jalisco. However only around 7,000 Wixáritari live in their homeland while some 13,000 have migrated to other places within Mexico, and other still live in Cora communities in the Mesa del Nayar. The Huichol communities are in the northern part of the present states of Jalisco and eastern Nayarit, flanked by high volcanic ranges and intersected by deep canyons of the western Sierra Madre, with the states of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí to the east and the state of Durango to the north. Their communal land holdings are estimated to be a little over 4,000 square kilometers, with some in the process of being disputed. The three main communities belong to the municipality of Mezquitic, Jalisco, and they were nominally conquered around 1650. They are called San Sebastián Teponohuastlán (Wautüa), Santa Catarina Cuexcomatitlán (Tuapuri), and San Andrés Cohamiata (Tatei Kié). Guadalupe Ocotán (Ratsisarie) is a subcommunity, or annex, of San Andrés that was politically subdivided when Nayarit claimed it as part of its state instead of Jalisco in 1873. Similarly, Tuxpan de Bolaños (Tutxipa) is called an annex of the community of San Sebastián but has belonged to the municipality of Bolaños, Jalisco, since it was recognized in 1885. Today, both annexes are more acculturated to Mexican society than the core communities. The Wixaritari who still live in their homeland were estimated to number between 7,000 to 8,000 inhabitants by Dr. Phil Weigand, who noticed a pattern of emigration in 1979 that we and others have since confirmed. The Wixaritari also form a significant percentage of the population of the Cora or Náyari communities, and many are dispersed in noncommunal land grants (Spanish: ejidos) around this territory, especially in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango, while more are becoming urbanized. Recent statistics point to an overall population of well over 20,000.
   2. "Chiapas "
      1. "Izapa" is a very large pre-Columbian archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it was occupied during the Late Formative period. The site is situated on the Izapa River, a tributary of the Suchiate River, near the base of the Tacaná volcano), the fourth largest mountain in Mexico. The settlement at Izapa extended over 1.4 miles, making it the largest site in Chiapas. The site reached its apogee between 600 BCE and 100 CE; several archaeologists have theorized that Izapa may have been settled as early as 1500 BCE, making it as old as the Olmec sites of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán and La Venta.[citation needed] Izapa remained occupied through the Late Classic period. The period of Izapa’s height is still unknown due to little material for carbon dating, so the issue is still widely debated. Due to the abundance of carved stelae and monuments at Izapa, the term "Izapa style" is used to describe similarly executed works throughout the Pacific foothills and highlands beyond, including some found at Takalik Abaj and Kaminaljuyu.[1] Izapa is located on wet and hilly land made of volcanic soil, though it is still fertile for agriculture. The weather is very hot and very wet. The area around Izapa was a major cacao producing area known as the Soconusco region, which was used by the Aztecs. Site layout and architecture Izapa was a large site that included extensive monuments and architecture. The site had eight groups of mounds with between 80 and 130 total mounds, of which roughly only half have been restored. Izapa’s architecture makes up roughly 250,000 cubic meters when combined. The site included pyramids, sculptured plazas and squares, and possibly two ball courts. There are two long open areas that resemble ball courts found at other Mesoamerican sites, but it is unclear if these two courts were used for the ballgame. Mound 30A was where a stepped pyramid was built. This pyramid was around ten meters high and probably used for religious and ceremonial purposes.[citation needed] Like many Mesoamerican sites, Izapa is laid out just east of true north, It is aligned with the volcano Tacaná and also seems to be situated to the December solstice horizon. Izapa and other sites from the Formative Period. Izapa and other Mesoamerican civilizations Michael Coe describes Izapa as being a connective link between the Olmec and the early Maya. He supports his argument with the large amount of Olmec style motifs used in Izapan art, including jaguar motifs, downturned human mouths, St. Andrew’s Cross, flame eyebrows, scrolling skies and clouds, and baby-face figurines. Also used to support Coe’s hypothesis are elements in Maya culture thought to be derived from the Izapans, including similarities in art and architecture styles, continuity between Maya and Izapan monuments, and shared deities. Other archaeologists argue that there not yet enough known to support Coe and that the term "Izapan Style" should only be used when describing art from Izapa. Virginia Smith argues that Izapan art is too unique and different in style to be the result of Olmec influence or the precursor to Maya art. Smith says that Izapan art is very site specific and did not spread far from the site. Izapan art most likely did indirectly influence Maya art, though it would just be one of the many influences on the Maya. Izapa is also included in the debate of the origin of the 260-day calendar. The calendar was originally thought to be a Maya invention, but recently it has been hypothesized that calendar originated in Izapa. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that Izapa fits the geological and historical conditions better than the previous place thought to be the origin. Stela 2 from Izapa Izapan monumental art Izapa gains its fame through its art style. The art found at the site includes sculptures of stelae and also altars that look like frogs. The stelae and frog altars generally went together, the toads symbolized rain. Much of the art of Izapa that features people includes large groups of people, not individuals. There are common characteristics of Izapan art, such as winged objects, long-lipped gods much like the Chaac of the Maya,[2] Olmec-like swirling sky and clouds, feline mouth used as frame, representation of animals (crocodile, jaguar, frog, fish, birds), overlapping, and lack of dates. The sheer number of sculptures outweighs that of any contemporaneous site. Garth Norman has counted 89 stelae, 61 altars, 3 thrones, and 68 "miscellaneous monuments at Izapa. In contrast to the ruler-oriented sculpture of the Epi-Olmec culture 330 miles (550 km) across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Izapan sculpture has features mythological and religious subjects, and is ceremonial and frequently narrative in nature.[3] Also, in contrast to Epi-Olmec and later Maya stela, Izapa monuments rarely contain glyphs. Although this could imply that the Izapan culture lacked knowledge of any writing system, Julia Guernsey, author of a definitive work on Izapa sculpture, proposes instead that the monuments were intentionally language-free and that "Izapa's position at the juncture of two linguistic regions [i.e. Mixe-Zoque and Maya] may have fostered the penchant for non-verbal communicative strategies."
         • Lecture notes from the University of Kansas
         • University of Texas page with several drawings
         • The DeLanges visit Izapa, with lots of photos
      2. Pre-Hispanic City and National Park of "Palenque" Palenque (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia - INAH)(spanish only) State of Chiapas, Municipality of Palenque N17 29 00 W92 03 00 A prime example of a Mayan sanctuary of the classical period, Palenque was at its height between AD 500 and 700, when its influence extended throughout the basin of the Usumacinta River. The elegance and craftsmanship of the buildings, as well as the lightness of the sculpted reliefs with their Mayan mythological themes, attest to the creative genius of this civilization.
      3. Région "Lacan-Tún" – "Usumacinta" Coordinates: 17º 08’ 11' et 16º 04’ 40' N91º 40’ 40' et 90º 41’37' W Milieu naturel Cette région d’une grande biodiversité renferme une partie de la selva "Lacandona" – aire de conservation prioritaire-, et présente une diversité de conditions physiques et biologiques qui comprend des écosystèmes de massifs contins qui ne se retrouvent généralement pas dans d’autres sites : forets vierges inondables et forets vierges hautes aux feuilles persistantes. Les principales unités physiographiques qui ont été identifiées dans cette région sont : les sierras et les gorges des cours d’eau Perlas et Santo Domingo, le système des sierras d la "Corolita-Jalapa" , la vallée de "San Quintin" , la vallées de Santo Domingo, les sierras du Nord, la plaine alluvial de la région Usumacinta – Lacan-Tún et la vallée de "Lacanjá" . La région comprend 45% des aires naturelles protégées de l’Etat de Chiapas, y compris : l’aire de protection de la flore et de la faune Naha, l’aire e protection de la flore et de la faune "Metzabok" , l’aire de protection de la flore et de la faune "Chankin" , le monument naturel "Bonampak", la monument naturel Yaxchilan, la réserve de la biosphère "Montes Azules" , la réserve de la biosphère Lacan – Tún et la réserve communale "La cojolita" . La région Lacan – Tún qui fait partie de la selva Lacandona est considérée comme une aire exceptionnelle quant à sa biodiversité. Il est possible d’y trouver plus de 20% de la biodiversité du pays et des groupes manifestement remarquables d’oiseaux, de papillons et de coléoptères. Elle maintient des espèces en danger d’extinction qui ont disparu dans d’autres sites, comme l’ara rouge (Ara macao), l’aigle harpie (Harpia arpyja) et le jaguar (Pantera onca). Les gorges de Lacan – Tún et d’Usumacinta constituent une des plus importantes régions hydrographiques du Mexique ; avec le fleuve "Grijalva" , elles apportent, en effet, 70 % de l’écoulement national vers le golfe du Mexique. Les quatre groupes ethniques qui vivent dans cette région : "Lacandons" , "Choles" , "Tzeltals" et "Tojobals" , lui ont imprime son caractère pluriethnique et apporté un remarquable patrimoine culturel. Los lacandones son un grupo indígena maya . Milieu culturel Deux sites importants qui correspondent à la civilisation maya témoignent de la partie culturelle de cette zone. "Bonampak" , qui s’étend sur une superficie de 3,155.68 hectares, renferme plus de 150 complexes de logements de complexité architectonique et de dimensions variées, éloignés les uns des autres de 100 à 400 mètres. Les vastes espaces vides étaient, semble-t-il, consacrés à la culture du cacao et des produits agricoles fondamentaux. Le centre de la ville comprend l’acropole, c’est-à-dire une élévation naturelle, modifiée de façon artificielle, et la Grand-place qui s’étend devant l’acropole. Huit édifices recouverts d’une voûte maya et une autre dizaine au moins de constructions dont le toit était fabriqué de matériaux périssables sont distribués le long de plusieurs terrasses situées à différentes hauteurs. Au milieu de ces immeubles s’érige l’édifice « des peintures », le plus important de tous, connu aussi sous le nom de « numéro un ». L’édifice des peintures mesure 16.80 mètres de face pour 4.20 mètres de côté et sa hauteur, du sol à la fermeture de la voûte, s’élève à 3.75 mètres. Il est divisé en trois chambres qui contiennent, chacune, une large banquette ou table. Toutes les pièces sont abondamment recouvertes de peintures murales suivant une technique d’application qui n’est pas exactement une peinture à la fresque, mais bien une technique mixte dans laquelle ressortent le temple et les peintures en gomme végétale qui adhèrent aux revêtements en stuc des murs . Les peintures représentent divers aspects de la vie quotidienne de l’élite maya à l’époque classique : aspect physique, vêtements, rituels religieux, musique, danse et processions, la guerre et la prise de captifs pour les sacrifices, les dieux et la représentation des constellations. D’autre part, sur la Grand-place et l’acropole de Bonampak se trouvent dix stèles dont quatre arborent des bas-reliefs et des inscriptions hiéroglyphiques ; parmi ces dernières, se distingue la stèle 1, haute de cinq mètres, ce qui en fait une des plus élevées du monde maya. La prospérité de Bonampak qui s’étendit entre les années 400 et 800 apr. J.-C., atteignit au cours des cinquante dernières années un remarquable essor ; c’est l’époque du gouverneur Chaan Muan II qui fit construire l’édifice des peintures et qui fut le grand allié du gouverneur de la ville voisine de Yaxchilán. "Yaxchilán" qui correspond à la période classique (entre les années 300 à 900 apr. J.-C.) est située dans un méandre de roche calcaire sur la rive du fleuve Usumacinta. Le site conserve plus de 80 édifices dont 50 ont été explorés et restaurés ; il contient également plus de 130 monuments sculpturaux : stèles, linteaux, autels, escaliers et hiéroglyphiques qui renferment de précieuses informations épigraphiques concernant l’histoire de la dynastie de Yaxchilán. Ses constructions configurent plusieurs ensembles architectoniques qui sont situés sur des terrasses nivelées et qui présentent une orientation générale du sud-est au nord-ouest. Les immeubles les plus remarquables sont la Grand-place, la grande acropole et la petite acropole à côté de plusieurs ensembles de moindre importance et de complexes de logements. L’architecture de Yaxchilán est classifiée du style Usumacinta qui se caractérise par les corbeilles ajourées, les contreforts et les linteaux très façonnés.
      4. Churches in the Zoque Province, "Chiapas " Coordinates: 16°17' N - 93°94' W This valuable historic complex includes eight XVI-century churches built under the guidance of Dominican friars, whose goal was to evangelise the Zoque people, a culture which was still very much alive, and was heir to one of the most ancient cultures in Mesoamerica. The building project was originally of European design, but it soon acquired local features, and it is therefore one of a kind in Mexican Colonial art. The presence of these churches triggered the development of a school of gilded and painted sculpture. The Convent of Santo Domingo "Tecpatan" became the most important centre in the region, and is now the focal point of efforts to recover the use of the Zoque language. All eight churches still preserve their roles as spiritual guides for the local population. Mixe languages — an estimated 90,000 native speakers Eastern Mixe — An estimated 72,000 native speakers Dialects: "Coatlán" (mco), Istmo(mir), "Quetzaltepec" (pxm), "Juquila" (mxq), and "Mazatlán" (mzl) Veracruz Mixe — An estimated 4,000 native speakers Dialects: "Oluta" (plo) nearly extinct - only 100 speakers, "Sayula" (pos) Western Mixe An estimated 10,000 native speakers Dialects: "Totontepec" (mto), "Tlahuitoltepec" (mxp) Zoque languages — an estimated 60,000 native speakers Chiapas Zoque — An estimated 22,000 native speakers Dialects: "Copainalá" (zoc), "Rayón" (zor), "Francisco León" (zos) Oaxaca Zoque - An estimated 4,500 native speakers Dialect: "Chimalapa" (zoh) Veracruz Zoque — An estimated 30,000 native speakers Dialects: Highland (poi), "Texistepec" (poq) nearly extinct - only 450 speakers, Tabasco (zoq) nearly extinct - only 40 speakers
      5. Réserve de la Biosphère Selva El "Ocote" Coordinates: N16°45' 42' et 17° 09' 00' W93° 54'19' et 93° 21' 20' Le territoire de cette réserve s’étend sur quelques parties des régions physiographiques : la Dépression centrale et les Montagnes du Nord dans le Chiapas ; il est limité à son extrémité orientale par la prolongation du plateau central et au nord par le barrage hydroélectrique de Malpaso. Le paysage prépondérant correspond à celui des montagnes marginales du nord du Chiapas, constituées de sierras et de montagnes de pentes escarpées (sierra Veinte Casas, sierra Monterrey y canyon de la Venta), dont les altitudes varient de 800 à 1500 msnm. Du point de vue morphologique, le relief qui s’impose dans la réserve est typiquement karstique : il présente un degré assez élevé de déformations de roches qui ont donné naissance à des dépressions de diverses magnitudes dans un relief de canyons, crevasses, précipices, dolines et cavernes. Les diverses altitudes que présente la région de la réserve oscillent entre 180 et 1 400 mètres ; elles sont à l’origine de trois types de climats qui vont d’un climat chaud et humide à un climat tempéré humide, atteignant des précipitations pluviales annuelles de 1 400 à 2 300 mm en moyenne. La zone fait partie du bassin hydrologique appartenant au réseau fluvial du Grijalva, un des plus importants fleuves du Mexique. La confluence de plusieurs rivières, qui donne naissance au fleuve La Venta, constitue pour la selva El Ocote le collecteur hydrogéologique de tout le territoire. Étant donné sa situation géographique, ses caractéristiques physiographiques et l’énorme présence de terrains escarpés, dix types de végétation sont représentés dans la selva El Ocote : forêt tropicale haute à feuilles persistantes, forêt d’essences sub-feuillues haute ou moyenne, forêt d’essences feuillues persistantes moyenne ou basse (forêt mésophile de montagne), forêt basse à feuilles caduques, forêt basse à feuilles caduques épineuses, savane, bois de pins et de chêne, chênaies, forêt de feuilles caduques et végétation de type secondaire. Bien que toute la flore de la région n’ait pas encore été enregistrée, on a repéré jusqu’à présent 705 espèces, 452 genres et 121 familles qui coexistent tout au long du canyon du fleuve La Venta. Le chiffre de 705 espèces est loin d’être définitif, étant donné que l’exploration de toute la zone montagneuse qui court vers le nord sur toute la largeur de la réserve à une altitude de 800 à 1 400 msnm, n’est pas exhaustive ; il est possible que la variété des espèces augmente à près de 2 000. En ce qui concerne la faune, la selva El Ocote est considérée comme un des plus importants centres de diversité biologique, car elle est située dans une zone de transition entre deux provinces néo-tropicales, celle du Pacifique et celle de Tehuantepec, qui renferme un total de 646 espèces de vertébrés terrestres. Quant aux invertébrés, ils sont estimés à 3 000 espèces de coléoptères et 500 espèces de lépidoptères ; cependant, si on y ajoutait tous les autres invertébrés, on atteindrait le chiffre de 20 000 espèces. Il existe également de nombreux vestiges archéologiques qui correspondent à la culture Zoque, ainsi que des grottes qui furent habitées par des cultures préhispaniques. El Ocote Ubicación Geográfica Limita al norte con la presa Netzahualcóyotl (Malpaso), al Sur con el Río la Venta, al Este con la Sierra Veinte Casas (así le nombran) y al Oeste con la confluencia de los Ríos Encajonado (negro) y la Venta. Fue decretada el 24 de mayo de 1972, por el Gobierno del Estado como área natural y típica del Estado de Chiapas y el 20 de octubre de 1982, el Presidente López Portillo la decreta como zona de protección forestal y fáunica. A principios de la administración de Miguel de la Madrid, el manejo de la reserva pasó a manos de la SEDUE, ahora SEMARNAT, que le asignó la categoría de reserva especial de la biosfera. La selva "El Ocote", estuvo poblada por indígenas Zoques, cuyos rastros se encuentran en los diversos sitios arqueológicos presentes en la reserva, como lo son las ruinas del Cerro Ombligo, Cerro la Colmena, San Antonio, San Isidro, Quechula, Pueblo Viejo y el conocido Tapesco del Diablo, la reserva protege una selva primaria en sus zonas vírgenes, una reliquia vegetal formada por varios tipos de vegetación, con especies representativas como: Caoba, El Cedro, El Chicozapote, La Ceiba, El Amate y El Huanacastle. Las principales vías de acceso a la reserva, son la carretera Panamericana y la carretera de terraceria Ocozocuautla-Embarcadero. La selva "El Ocote", cuenta con una rica variedad de fauna silvestre; 97 especies registradas de mamíferos, 334 de aves y 68 anfibios y reptiles; estas se concentran principalmente en las zonas que han permanecido con la vegetación primaria en buen estado de conservación, y donde es posible encontrar especies en peligro de extinción, endémicas y raras como el jaguar, puma, tapir, zenzo, mono araña, mono aullador pardo, nutria, ardilla voladora, águila tirana, zopilote rey, hocofaisan, cocodrilo de río, entre otros. La selva "El Ocote",es considerada uno de los macizos forestales más importantes de Mesoamérica, así mismo forma parte de la Cuenca hidrológica del río Grijalva. Es un área genuinamente silvestre en toda su extensión es posible encontrar, extraordinarias simas y cavernas. El Cañón del río La Venta, destaca por su naturaleza y monumentalidad. La principal actividad en estas zonas es la agropecuaria, a través de los cultivos de café y maíz. La reserva cuenta con dos campamentos, Rabasa que se encuentra a 40 Km. de la ciudad de Ocozocuautla por la carretera de Apic-pac, donde podrá conocer y disfrutar de los atractivos de la reserva, acompañados por los guardabosques que ahí se encuentran. El Encajonado se encuentra a 55 Km. de Ocozocuautla donde arribara al embarcadero, donde podrá embarcarse en una pequeña lancha rumbo al campamento recorriendo la presa Nezahualcoyotl por 2hrs. Servicios de hospedaje.- Dentro de la reserva "El Ocote" existen áreas especificas para instalar casas de campaña y si lo prefieren tienen la opción de hospedarse dentro de las instalaciones de los campamentos. Recomendaciones.- Se recomienda llevar suficientes alimentos a la reserva, zapatos tenis, botas, repelente y si lo prefiere bronceador. Tomando en consideración que dentro de la reserva únicamente se práctica el Ecoturismo.
      6. La preciosa cascada "El Aguacero" es formada por un río subterráneo y se encuentra dentro del impresionante Cañón de la Venta, donde corre el río del mismo nombre. Para la visita de este sitio natural, ¡se bajan y se suben 624 gradas! Un esfuerzo que recompensa el descubrimiento progresivo del entorno: paisajes, cuevas, vegetación… Es una experiencia inimaginable estar en ese lugar en contacto con la naturaleza, caminar y nadar en sus posas de aguas míticas, observando los fósiles que son grandes rocas sobre el lecho del río. Dirección: Domicilio conocido. Comunidad Lázaro Cárdenas, Reserva Selva del Ocote. Ocozocuautla, Chiapas. SendaSur Calle. Real de Guadalupe No. 46 B, Lázaro Cárdenas, Ocozocoautla. Chiapas. Teléfono: 01 (968) 6898 770 01 (967) 678 3909 Correo electrónico: infosendasur@prodigy.net.mx info@sendasur.com
      7. "Tuxtla Gutiérrez" ECOBIOSFERA “EL TRIUNFO” Dirección: Calle San Cristóbal No. 8, Col. Residencial La Hacienda, Tuxtla, Gutiérrez. Chiapas. Teléfono: 01 (961) 1251177 Fax: 01 (961) 1251177 Ext. 107 Correo electrónico: admon_ecobiosfera@hotmail.com ecotriunfo@prodigy.net Página en Internet: www.sendasur.com
      8. "San Cristóbal de las Casas" Nichim Tours, Calle Hermanos Dominguez No 5 - A , Col. Centro Histórico – San Cristóbal de las Casas: Los lugares que visitamos son: La selva Lacandona Las Guacamayas Las Nubes Xcan Río Lacantun Río Tzendales Comunidad Lacandona de Lacan-ha Zona arqueológica de Bonampak Zona arqueológica de Yaxchilan Río Usumacinta Zona arqueológica de Zac t´zi Cascadas de Las Golondrinas La Posa de Pop Chan La Comunidad Lacandona de Na-Ha Laguna de Na-Ha Laguna Verde Laguna Negra Comunidad Lacandona de METZABOK Laguna de Metzabok Zona arqueológica de Palenque Cascadas de Agua Azul Cascada de Misol-Ha Gran Laguna de Miramar Altos de Chiapas Comunidades Mayas de Chamula Zinacantan Amatenango del valle Tenejapa Lagos de Montebello Cascadas del Chiflon Cañon del Sumidero Zona arquelógica de Toniná Selva del ocote Cañon de la venta Río de la venta Fosa de las cotorras Cascadas del Aguacero Embalse de la presa Netzahualcoyotl y la comunidad de Apic pac Sotano de la Lucha y río de la Junta La ruta del café: Mar del Pacífico y las playas de Puerto Arista Reserva de la Sepultura Reserva de la Encrusijada El Triunfo Plantaciones de café Fincas cafetaleras Volcán Tacaná Union Juarez Zona arqueológica de Izapa Puerto Madero
      9. "Tonina" ("Toniná" in the Spanish language) is a pre-Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas, some 13 km (8.1 mi) east of the town of "Ocosingo" . The site is medium to large, with groups of temple-pyramids set on terraces rising some 71 metres (230 ft) above a plaza,[1] a large court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, and over 100 carved monuments, most dating from the Maya Classic Era from the 6th century through the 9th century. Toniná is distinguished by its outstanding stucco sculptures and particularly by its in-the-round carved monuments, produced to an extent not seen in Mesoamerica since the end of the much earlier Olmec civilization.[2] Toniná was an aggressive state in the Late Classic, using warfare to develop a powerful kingdom.[3] For much of its history, Toniná was engaged in sporadic warfare with Palenque, its greatest rival and one of the most important polities in the west of the Maya region, although Toniná eventually became the dominant city in the west.[4] The city is notable for having the last known Long Count date on any Maya monument, marking the end of the Classic Maya period in AD 909. Etymology Toniná means house of stone in the Tzeltal language of the local Maya inhabitants, an alternate interpretation is the place where stone sculptures are raised to honour time.[6] However, this is a modern name and the original name was either Po or Popo, appearing in Classic Maya texts in the title used for the kings of Toniná, k'uhul po' ajaw (Divine Lord of Po).[7] A Maya rebellion in Colonial times, in 1558, featured a group called the po' winikob' (People of Po).[8] Early versions of the Toniná emblem glyph bore a doubled po glyph and the term Popo is also found in Colonial records.[9] Since double sounds were often abbreviated in hieroglyphic texts, Popo may represent the original name of the city.[10] Location Toniná is located at an altitude of 800 to 900 metres (2,600 to 3,000 ft) in the Chiapas highlands of southern Mexico, some 40 miles (64 km) south of the contemporary Maya city of Palenque, Toniná's greatest rival throughout its recorded history.[11] Toniná is separated from Palenque by mountainous terrain and the site core is located along an easily defended ascending limestone ridge immediately to the west of a seasonal tributary of the Rio Jatate, one of the two rivers that forms the Ocosingo Valley.[12] Rulers In-the-round sculpture of a ruler in the Toniná site museum Rulers of Tonina recorded in the Maya script on Tonina monuments include:Name (or nickname) Ruled Ruler 1[13] ? B'alam Ya Acal (also known as Jaguar Bird Peccary)[14] 6th century Chac B'olon Chaak[15] ? K'inich Hix Chapat[16] c. 595–665 Ruler 2[17] 668–687 K'inich B'aaknal Chaak[18] 688–715 Ruler 4[19] 708–723 K'inich Ich'aak Chapat[20] 723–739+ K'inich Tuun Chapat[21] to 762 Ruler 7[22] ? Ruler 8[23] c. 787–806+ Uh Chapat (Ruler 9)[24] c.837 Ruler 10[25] c.901 The last known recorded date at the site is featured on Monument 101 as 15 January 909 CE.[26] History Early Classic Stela depicting the 6th century ruler Jaguar Bird Peccary.[27] Toniná had a vibrant Early Classic presence, although the Early Classic remains lie entirely buried under later construction.[28] Due to this, early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site.[29] An 8th century text refers to a king ruling in AD 217, although it only mentions his title, not his name.[30] Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments, the better preserved of which is an altar that dates to 514.[31] A ruler known as Jaguar Bird Peccary is represented on a 6th century stela, which describes him acceding to the throne in 568.[32] The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of Chinikiha, located 72 kilometres (45 mi) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River, the text is from a throne and describes the capture of a person from Toniná in 573.[33] Late Classic K'inich Hix Chapat Toniná's history comes into focus in the Late Classic, when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts.[34] In 633 K'inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign,[35] although he was probably enthroned in 595.[36] The last mention of K'inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to 665 that appears to be a memorial stone.[37] Ruler 2 Ruler 2 acceded to the thrown of Toniná in 668. His rule is marked by warfare and the frequent depiction of bound captives on his monuments.[38] Ruler 2 established the use of in-the-round sculptural style that came to typify the stelae of Toniná.[39] A monument dated to 682 depicts three naked prisoners with their arms bound, one of them is identified as a lord from Annak', an as yet unidentified site.[40] His reign may ended with his defeat and capture by K'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque in September 687, as described in a glyphic text from Temple 17 in the rival city, an event that probably culminated in his sacrifice.[41] K'inich B'aaknal Chaak Sculpture of a bound captive in the site museum of Toniná. K'inich B'aaknal Chaak was enthroned in 688, twenty years after Ruler 2, and reigned for twenty-seven years.[42] During his reign he restored Tonina's power with a number of military victories over Palenque, and his reign was dominated by the struggle against the rival city for regional power.[43] Ballcourt 1, the larger of Toniná's two ballcourts, was dedicated in 699 to celebrate three victories over the city's arch-rival.[44] The ballcourt originally had six sculptures of bound captives, all vassals of the enemy Palenque king from the Usumacinta region.[45] The date of the king's death is unknown.[46] Ruler 4 Ruler 4 came to power in 708 at a very young age.[47] Three years later, in 711, while Ruler 4 was still a child, Toniná gained an important victory over Palenque.[48] The battle resulted in the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II of Palenque and made Toniná the dominant centre in the lower Usumacinta region.[49] The victory was so complete that it resulted in a ten-year gap in the dynastic history of the defeated city,[50] during which the captured ruler may have been held hostage.[51] Ruler 4 continued in power to celebrate the period endings of 716 and 721.[52] A captive depicted on one of his monuments is identified as being from the distant city of Calakmul, one of the two Maya "superpowers".[53] K'inich Ich'aak Chapat Ruler 4 was succeeded by K'inich Ich'aak Chapat in 723.[54] Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras, a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River, now in Guatemala.[55] A series of events during his reign were marked on monuments between 726 and 729 and in 730 he rededicated the tomb of his predecessor K'inich B'aaknal Chaak.[56] The mother of K'inich Ich'aak Chapat is named as Lady Winik Timan K'awiil and his father may well have been K'inich B'aaknal Chaak himself.[57] The reign of K'inich Ich'aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives, although the reason for this is unknown.[58] Later rulers Maya civilization Peoples · Languages · Society Religion · Mythology · Human sacrifice Architecture · Calendar Textiles · Trade Pre-Columbian Music · Writing History Classic Maya collapse Spanish conquest of Yucatán v • d • e Little is known of the next two rulers, Ruler 6 is named as K'inich Tuun Chapat, he celebrated the period ending of 736 and may have died 762.[59] A damaged text accompanying the image of a bound captive indicates renewed warfare with Palenque during his reign, however the name of the prisoner is lost and it is unclear if it is the actual king of Palenque or merely one of his vassals.[60] He was succeeded by Ruler 7, about whom even less is known.[61] Around 764 Toniná defeated Palenque in battle.[62] In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord Wak Chan K'ak', a prince who appears to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power.[63] Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná.[64] He celebrated a series of events between 789 and 806, including the defeat of Pomoy in 789, and the capture of the ruler Ucha'an Aj Chih, who appears to have been the vassal of B'olon K'awiil of Calakmul.[65] In 799 he rededicated the tomb of Ruler 1.[66] Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive remodelling of the upper levels of the Acropolis.[67] Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title aj b'olon b'aak, "He of Many Captives".[68] However, the lesser extent of Toniná's power is evident from its victory over the site of Sak Tz'i' (White Dog), an important city in the Lacandon region, an area which had once been dominated by Toniná.[69] By the time of Ruler 8's successor, Uh Chapat, Toniná was clearly in decline.[70] Only a single event, in 837, can be dated to his reign, although a stucco mural depicting captives with garrottes at their throats may belong to his period of rule.[71] The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen, perhaps aided by the site's relative isolation.[72] Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to 904 in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king has not survived.[73] Ceramic fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more.[74] Modern history The first published account of the ruins was made by Fray Jacinto Garrido at the end of the 17th century.[75] A number of visitors investigated the ruins of Tonina in the 19th century, the first being an expedition led by Guillaume Dupaix in 1808.[76] John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood visited in 1840, and Stephens wrote an extensive description of the site.[77] More thorough accounts did not come until the 1890s, when Eduard Seler, Karl Sapper, and others mapped and photographed the site. Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge investigated the site in 1925 for Tulane University. Blom returned in 1928, discovering additional monuments in the area. The French Tonina Project began excavations in 1972 which continued through 1975, then resumed in 1979 to 1980, under the direction of Pierre Becquelin and Claude Baudez.[78] The National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico (INAH) began their own excavations at Tonina the following year. The site is accessible for tourism and has a small museum. The site Glyph with a representation of Itzamna, the supreme god of creation and destruction, in the site museum of Toniná.[79] The site occupies seven south-facing terraces rising 71 metres (230 ft) over the plaza below.[80] It has a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites, with a right-angle relationship between most structures.[81] Much of the public imagery of the site details the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies.[82] A large stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depicts a skeletal death god carrying the decapitated head of a lord of Palenque in one hand.[83] A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná's most distinguished victims, dozens of fragments of this frieze were discovered in the plaza below.[84] This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque, suggesting that captured artists carried out the work.[85] After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period, many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces.[86] Structures The entrances to the Palace of the Underworld. Ballcourt 1 (the Sunken Ballcourt) was dedicated in 699 by K'inich B'aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque.[87] Sculptures of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king were used as ballcourt markers.[88] One of these vassals is named as Yax Ahk (Green Turtle), who was the lord of Annay Te', a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilán.[89] Ballcourt 2 is the smaller of the two ballcourts and lies in the north of the plaza, at the foot of the Acropolis.[90] The Palace of the Underworld is entered via three step-vaulted arches on the eastern side of the second terrace.[91] The Palace of Frets is located on the fourth terrace.[92] The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets.[93] On the east side of the palace a stairway leads to a decorated throne of stone and stucco.[94] One of the rooms of the palace contains a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones
         • Toniná at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions
         • The DeLanges visit Tonina, with lots of photos
         • Toniná Archeological Site
         • Tonina on TourByMexico.com photos
         • Tonina, short description and photos on GBonline
   3. "Colima"
      1. Archipelago of "Revillagigedo" State, Province or Region: Colima Coordinates: N18 20 - 19 20 W110 45 - 114 50 The islands of the Revillagigedo Archipelago are oceanic islands of volcanic origin that emerge from a volcanic floor along the Clarion Fracture zone, west of the union between the Pacific, Ribera and Cocos geologic plates. The Insular Arch of the Revillagigedo Archipelago represents an authentic submarine mountain system, with some summits above sea level, such as the islands Roca Partida, Socorro and San Benedicto. The islands are characterized for being surrounded by cliffs, with mountainous areas and interior volcanoes as well as rugged sites, lava fields and soft crests. Its topographic forms are of endogenous, accumulative nature, while exogenous processes have modified the original volcanic physiognomy, mainly in the central and higher parts, which reach up to 1,040 m above sea level. The regional climate is considered arid or desertic, with an average yearly temperature higher than 22ºC. Climate is regulated by tropical depressions and hurricanes that occur during the summer and which characterize the Western Pacific. Annual rainfall is scarce (313 mm) and takes places mainly during the months of August to October, with a predominant regime of summer rains. The average temperature of the islands´ surrounding waters fluctuates between 28ºC and 29ºC during the summer, while during the winter the average surface temperature of the adjacent oceanic water oscillates between 22ºC and 25ºC. The islands biota presents a considerable degree of endemism, both on land and in its surrounding waters, particularly concerning birds. The Revillagigedo Archipelago is under the influence of the tropical zone of the Mexican Pacific and of the temperate-tropical zone of transition of the northeastern Pacific. Thus, its flora and fauna includes species from the coast of Tropical America, of the Indo-Pacific region and of circumtropical areas. The marine fauna is characterized not only by its beauty but also for its high diversity of invertebrates (and in some groups also by the number of endemisms), particularly crustaceans and mollusks, as also equinoderms and corals. There are 133 species of birds registered for the islands, 25 of which are endemic to the archipelago. There are also 22 species of hermatypic corals, of which more than half are found only near oceanic islands of the Eastern Pacific, and near to one third is found only at the Archipelago of Revillagigedo. There are also 156 species of mollusks on the islands, 99 species of equinoderms, 92 species of crustaceans, three of which are endemic. The fish fauna of the archipelago also presents a high degree of species richness with at least 321 species, 25 of which belong to the elasmobranquia, with 20 species identified as sharks and five as rays. Also, the waters surrounding the Revillagigedo Archipelago represent an important feeding, breeding and transit area for cetaceans of the Mexican Pacific, and 16 species of whales and dolphins have been registered in the area. (vii): The Revillagigedo Archipelago is located in the Eastern Pacific, on the northern end of the ridge of Los Matemáticos. This ridge is a submarine topographical feature that marks the site where, approximately 3.5 million years ago, there was an expansion of the ocean floor. Continuing volcanic activity makes the Reserve a geologically important site, as it allows for the study of volcanic, plate tectonic, and risk of earthquakes phenomena. Geologic evolution has made possible the formation of polimetallic nodules on the ocean floor, considered the largest in the world. Socorro Island is a unique example in the Pacific basin, as it constitutes a mountainous area in which the highest elevation is found on the Evermann Volcano, characterized by different stages of pre-caldera, syn-caldera and post-caldera formations, From its inception in the depths of the ocean, it reaches almost 4,000 m of height. Its base diameter measures 4.8 km and the cusp reaches an altitude of 1,040 m above sea level. In a radius of 3.5 Km, at an altitude of some 700 m, 12 adventitious volcanoes surround the Evermann, with another ten found in a radius of 4.5 Km without an apparent subordination to the Evermann, but also of adventitious origin, which date from the Tertiary. On the island of San Benedicto, the Bárcena volcano is the more prominent topographical feature. The island San Benedicto contains a series of Quaternary traquitic[1] domes in its northern end. The origin of the San Benedicto Island resides in the distension movements associated to submarine fissures, canyons and mountains. The island is, in fact, the cusp of a submarine mountain, and its southeastern flank a lava-flow was discharged, reaching the ocean, and forming a delta that measures 700 x 1 200 m. The island Clarion was formed from materials produced by Miocene to Eocene volcanic eruptions. The islet Roca Partida is the tip of a submarine stratovolcano. (viii): The Revillagigedo Archipelago is representative of an oceanic island ecosystem characterized by its volcanic origin, and as such it is considered a fragile ecosystem. The archipelago is composed of four islands separated of the continental mass by several hundreds of kilometers (382 km to the North and 661 km to the West), varying in size and geological and ecological characteristics. Its insular nature and factors prevailing in the reserve, adverse to colonization by terrestrial organisms, transform this emerged land into a natural laboratory, in which important progress can be made in the study of evolutionary processes, and mechanisms and strategies of dispersion, competition, population dynamics and control of species. (ix): It possesses impressive terrestrial landscapes of diverse geomorphology, covered by scrub brush and deciduous forests, and surrounded by temperate crystalline waters of an outstanding transparency. Known for their abundance of marine life that includes the Giant Pacific Manta ray, dolphins, marine turtles and sharks, the islands also provide during the winter a courtship and pairing area for the spectacular Humpback whale. (x): Given their condition as oceanic islands, they represent a unique ensemble of species, habitats and ecosystems. The types of habitats found on these islands are very peculiar, from the smallest island (Roca Partida), that is only a rocky outcrop denuded of vegetation on which exclusively marine birds are found, to the vegetation of arid zones, halophytes, brush, grasslands and deciduous forests on the largest island (Socorro Island) Due to these characteristics, the islands of the Revillagigedo Archipelago constitute a separate biogeographical province within the Neotropical region and, in agreement with the world biogeography regionalization of the World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), it belongs to the Dry Forest of the Revillagigedo islands Eco-region (Revillagigedo islands dry forests -NT0216). As already stated, the Revillagigedo Archipelago possesses very high levels of endemism, both on land as in the surrounding waters, particularly of birds. The archipelago is located in the ecological confluence of the tropical region of the Mexican Pacific and the temperate-tropical transition of the northeastern Pacific; its life forms include species of the Indo-Pacific Region, of the coast of Tropical America and circumtropical areas. In this area, four species of marine turtles feed, nest and develop, namely the Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), and Green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Another animal that breeds and nourishes its young in the waters surrounding the Revillagigedo Archipelago islands is the Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Several species of endemic birds and reptiles complement the fauna of the reserve. In relation to its flora, 202 plant species have been registered, 55 of them are endemic to the archipelago. [1] Traquítico in the Spanish original. A type of volcanic rock. Satements of authenticity and/or integrity Its distance from the mainland and the lack of fresh water represent limiting factors to the establishment of human population centers on the islands. Since their discovery (Socorro Island was discovered in 1533; San Benedicto in 1542; Clarion and Roca Partida Island in 1779), explorers, fishermen, and researchers have inhabited the islands occasionally and, since 1957, personnel of the Ministry of the Navy (Secretaría de Marina) have a permanent base. However, at present there are no civil population or indigenous group settlements on these islands. The Revillagigedo Archipelago was decreed in the year of 1994 as a Nature Protected Area under the denomination of Biosphere Reserve. The guidelines and regulations applicable in environmental and conservation matters are those established by the General Law for Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (Ley General de Equilibrio Ecológico y Protección al Ambiente- LEGEEPA). The Official Mexican Norm´s (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001) purpose is to identify the species or populations of wild flora and fauna at risk in the Republic of Mexico, as well as to establish the criteria for inclusion or change of category of risk for species or populations by means of an method evaluating their risk of extinction. A series of species considered at risk are protected under this norm, such as marine mammals and marine turtles. Furthermore, these islands have their own Conservation and Management Program, published in 2004, which considers the criteria and strategies to assure the conservation of the insular and marine ecosystems of the archipelago. The Revillagigedo Archipelago is a Ramsar Site since 2004, and is thus considered a wetland of international importance. The World Conservation Union (UICN) includes this archipelago in its World Conservation Strategy, as a priority area for conservation within the terrestrial biogeographical provinces, and the International Council for Bird Protection (ICBP) consigns it as an endemic bird area of primary importance. Comparison with other similar properties The Biosphere Reserve Revillagigedo Archipelago shows a great similarity with the World Heritage sites of the Galapagos National Park of Ecuador and the Marine and Terrestrial Conservation Area of Coco´s Island in Costa Rica. These three island systems are of volcanic origin, and are situated on top of submarine cordilleras. Furthermore, given their size, isolation and degree of conservation, they present high levels of endemism, a product of their evolution in isolated territories and under the absence of external genetic flows, reason by which they are cataloged as natural laboratories, ideal for research studies on the ecological and evolutionary processes being undergone by the species present, and for long term environmental monitoring. The Revillagigedo Archipelago shares some similarities with other properties inscribed on the World Heritage list. Henderson Island, United Kingdom: inscribed given its almost unaltered state, for preserving numerous bird species and possesing mineral deposits formed by submarine volcanoes. Gough and Inaccesible Islands, United Kingdom: inscribed due to the presence of little altered island and marine ecosystems and harboring marine bird colonies. It also possesses adjacent marine areas with a high faunistic diversity. Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California, Mexico: for having an arid or dessert climate, arid and abrupt mountainous areas with irregular formations and cliffs of varying heights. It also presents high levels of endemisms. Lord Howe Islands, Australia: inscribed as an example of oceanic islands originated by volcanic activity over 2,000m below sea level. With a spectacular topography and habitat of numerous species, particularly birds. Atlantic Islands of Brazil, Brazil: inscribed for the presence of important marine ecosystems serving as feeding and breeding areas for species of fish, sharks, turtles and marine mammals. There are also large concentrations of marine birds.
      2. "La Campana" es un yacimiento arqueológico considerado en la lista del patrimonio arqueológico mexicano desde 1917. Se localiza en las inmediaciones de la Ciudad de Colima, cerca de los estados de Jalisco y Michoacán. Este sitio fue el núcleo prehispánico de mayor población en el Occidente de México. A través de los estudios de sabe que algunas de las características de este asentamiento están relacionadas con la cultura Teotihuacana durante el periodo Clásico. En el sitio se han encontrado vestigios de la fase cerámica denominada Capacha, que data del año 1500 antes de Cristo. Destaca la presencia de tumbas de tiro, ofrendas de cerámica, sistemas de drenaje pluvial, avenidas y un centro administrativo y religioso con numerosos monumentos. Los descubrimientos de La Campana fueron expuestos al público por primera vez en 1995. Los españoles descubrieron La Campana en 1524 cuando esta era conocida como Almoloyan, o el lugar entre los dos ríos. El sitio tiene su origen en épocas muy tempranas, hay vestigios de la fase cerámica denominada Capacha, del Preclásico Temprano de Mesoamérica. La evidencia arquitectónica en la superficie corresponde al horizonte Clásico (100 -1500 dC) Su máximo esplendor fue el periodo comprendido entre el 700 y el 900 de nuestra era. Es importante destacar la presencia de calles, un sistema de drenaje pluvial y de un centro religioso y administrativo, con numerosos monumentos, así como áreas habitacionales, con casas fáciles levantadas sobre plataformas tanto circulares como rectangulares, con paredes de caña y lodo y techumbre de palma respondiendo a las necesidades de la región altamente sísmica. En la economía y desarrollo de La Campana influyó su situación geográfica en el valle de Colima, pues allí fue donde convergieron tanto mercancías de lujo procedentes de las costas occidentales del centro de México, como productos agrícolas, materias primas de la región y maravillosas obras escultóricas en arcilla para su comercialización. Además cabe destacar el control que durante su apogeo ejerció sobre otros asentamientos de menor tamaño. Es probable que, según los arqueólogos, su decadencia estuviera relacionada con los terremotos que afectaron el centro ceremonial, quedando sólo algunos grupos asentados hasta el momento de contacto con los españoles. El sitio presenta evidencias de todo el desarrollo arquitectónico prehispánico, y en el subsuelo presenta igual complejidad arquitectónica en estructuras. En las edificaciones se emplearon cantos rodados de diversos tamaños, obtenidos de ríos, algunos de ellos muy lejanos. Para unir las piedras y levantar los muros a diversas alturas, utilizaron arcilla mezclada con restos vegetales, las superficies se cubrieron con enjarres aplanados de lodo, los cuales se sometieron a la acción del fuego para que endureciera y agarrara la calidad requerida. Como efecto de la Conquista, la población perdió mucha información de los orígenes; algunos investigadores señalan que fue un enclave de habla náhuatl, pero se sabe que también se hablaban otras lenguas, algunas pertenecientes a la familia yutonahua, en la que se engloban las siguientes lenguas: Familia Corachol (Cora --> y Huichol) Familia Náhuatl (Náhuatl) Familia Pimana (Pápago, Tepehuán y Névome) Familia Taracahita (Nuarijío, Mayo, Tarahumara y Yaqui). Zona arqueológica Piedra tallada en la Campana La Campana es sólo una porción de lo que originalmente era un asentamiento prehispánico muy importante, cuyo nombre se supone fue Almoloya. Fue un centro de control político-económico y religioso de gran tamaño, pero en el siglo XVI los franciscanos y habitantes de la región utilizaron material extraído de las plataformas prehispánicas para sus construcciones. Los primeros señalamientos formales de la existencia del sitio se debieron al Ing. José María Gutiérrez en 1917, quién además realizó un plano en el que incluyó algunas estructuras. En 1922 el Dr. Miguel Galindo inició la exploración de una de las edificaciones. La zona arqueológica se extiende actualmente sobre 134 hectáreas entre el Río Colima y el arroyo Pereira. Cabe señalar, sin embargo, que a la fecha, los arqueólogos han podido explorar apenas el 1% del total del área. Tiene un centro ceremonial administrativo, núcleo importante de numerosos edificios monumentales; plataformas rectangulares de cuerpos superpuestos, pirámides escalonadas que sirvieron de base para enormes recintos y patios superiores, además de otros tipos de construcciones. Hay avenidas y gran cantidad de petroglifos en varios patios y plazas, en cuyos interiores es posible observar estructuras de diversas dimensiones. En el punto central del sitio hacia el norte se aprecia una avenida de 4 m de ancho definida por muros laterales de piedras, elemento de comunicación con otras poblaciones rumbo al norte. Al noroeste existen unidades habitacionales o casas tempranas y al noreste una sección tardía del asentamiento, donde destaca un juego de pelota pequeño. La localización y distribución espacial de las estructuras corresponden a una planeación y trazo de carácter urbano. Destaca, por su monumentalidad, su centro administrativo-ceremonial. Está formado por plataformas superpuestas, en cuya parte superior existen vestigios de recintos sacros y habitacionales; y cuenta también con sistema de drenaje para evacuar las aguas pluviales. Es importante el sistema constructivo tan característico de la región: “piedra bola” traída de los ríos cercanos, unida con argamasa de barro y recubierta con enjarre de lodo pulido y quemado para su mayor resistencia. Las viviendas rectangulares y circulares estaban distribuidas probablemente en conjuntos habitacionales, separados por calles empedradas. Tenían diferentes dimensiones y estaban techadas con palmas y zacates de la región. La cerámica recuperada, si bien no es muy abundante probablemente por los saqueos sufridos durante décadas, ofrece sin duda interesantes datos sobre esta cultura. Varios entierros han sido encontrados durante la exploración, que proporcionan nuevos datos sobre ritos y costumbres funerarias. Llama la atención que los esqueletos suelen carecer de manos y pies, así como de caja torácica. La Campana, que debe su nombre a casuales descubridores que observaron un montículo parecido a una campana, es un lugar que habla de las culturas del Occidente de México. Su fechamiento aproximado es para el año 900 a. C. Descripción Mapa turístico en la la Zona Arqueológica de la Campana La sección de La Campana explorada en la primera temporada (1995), se halla localizada en una plaza en la que existe una red de drenaje con pozos de decantación para desalojar el agua de lluvia. Destacan importantes estructuras como el Edificio 1 formado por plataformas superpuestas escalonadas, al frente, una escalinata adornada con cubos de piedra a manera de alfarda. En la parte superior hay un amplio recinto, al interior se observan círculos que definen pozos en cuyo interior se guardaban granos y cenizas de personas importantes, quizá sacerdotes o guerreros muertos en batalla. Al centro, domina este espacio sagrado un adoratorio piramidal; sus características arquitectónicas lo convierten en un edificio único levantado sobre tres plataformas escalonadas, la forma del talud semeja la silueta del Volcán de Fuego, que era objeto de importante culto en esa época. En los costados de la estructura se localizaron restos óseos humanos ofrendados con el fin de sacralizar el edificio. El tercer edificio, levantado también sobre plataformas superpuestas, posee dos accesos que permiten el ascenso a la parte superior que tiene espacios definidos por muros. Sus funciones estaban relacionadas con el culto religioso privado de los sacerdotes que realizaban rituales en el centro ceremonial. Las edificaciones descubiertas en 1996 aparecen en una enorme plaza de nivel superior al de la sección explorada en 1995, construida con rellenos de piedra y tierra sobre edificios de épocas anteriores. Esta sección presenta dos enormes plataformas orientadas del este al oeste, sobre las que se levantan una serie de altares y pequeños recintos ceremoniales a los que se asciende por medio de escalinatas. En sus escombros se hallaron ofrendas de personas modestas, que aún careciendo de riquezas evocaban los tiempos de esplendor de la urbe y buscaban la protección de las deidades que allí habitaban. En el lado Este, dos grandes estructuras piramidales presiden el conjunto. La que aparece en el medio tiene sólo tres niveles, ya que el cuarto se perdió al realizar una construcción moderna en la parte superior; se levanta sobre una base rectangular de 25 m por lado y muestra al centro una escalinata adornada con alfardas laterales. Combina muros en talud con pasillos intermedios entre los diferentes cuerpos que la conforman. En la parte superior existía un recinto o santuario en donde probablemente los sacerdotes, alejados del resto de los hombres, realizaban muchos rituales. Esto se deduce debido a la cantidad de ofrendas y artefactos encontrados en la zona. En el otro edificio paralelo, de grandes muros ataludados, se localizó en 1996 parte de los muros que definían el recinto respectivo. Entre ambas edificaciones se construyó un juego de pelota, en el que se practicaba en una estrecha cancha orientada de este a oeste, definida por dos taludes laterales con un muro vertical en la parte superior que termina abajo en una pequeña banqueta. Importantes fueron los hallazgos con los ritos funerarios, relacionados con la interpretación de la vida prehispánica después de la muerte. Se localizaron varias tumbas de tiro, con diversos objetos como ofrendas, de tipo doméstico y ceremonial, destinados a acompañar al difunto en su viaje por el inframundo. Hoy en día, en la zona arqueológica de La Campana como en muchas más de la región del Occidente de México existía la Tradición de las Tumbas de Tiro, se puede ver una de estas tumbas de tiro cerca de la Estructura 6 en la zona. Destaca la tumba N° 7, que además de la bóveda en donde fueron enterrados diversos fragmentos de los cuerpos humanos, presenta un pasillo escalonado e importantes ofrendas entre las que destacan un perro y una máscara esculpida de barro. Estructura 1 Se encuentra localizada al sur de la plaza y su base es de 52 por 36 m; es de grandes dimensiones y su edificación es a base de plataformas superpuestas y escalonadas. Remata en un recinto sagrado de forma rectangular, en cuyo interior existen varios círculos con funciones probablemente rituales. Su acceso presenta amplios escalones ornamentados por cuatro cubos. Llama la atención el que la altura de los escalones varía: Los primeros son notablemente más altos que los siguientes. Después de su abandono continuó siendo objeto de culto, lo que se infiere por los restos óseos humanos encontrados a manera de ofrendas. En la estructura 1 se encuentra también el enjarre de lodo, lugar donde quedaron evidencias del enjarre o aplanado cocido que cubría los muros y pisos de los edificios monumentales. Es posible que sobre el enjarre existieran motivos decorativos, realizados con pigmentos de minerales y tierra de diferentes colores provenientes de la región. Muestras de enjarre se pueden ver también en la parte inferior del acceso este de la estructura 3. A simple vista se observan pequeñas partículas de zacate, mezcladas con el lodo, cuya función es principalmente desgrasante. Estructura 2 Está localizada al centro de una plaza y su base es de 20 por 20 m. Su forma presenta un juego de volumen y geometría que muestra una silueta esbelta y única en su tipo. Este edificio es un adoratorio típico de la arquitectura prehispánica de Colima. Se erige sobre tres plataformas cuadradas y escalonadas. Presenta un hermoso cuerpo en talud con cuatro accesos escalonados; estas conducen a la parte superior que es una plataforma cuadrada sobre la cual se realizan diferentes actividades rituales dedicadas a los dioses. En su base se encontraron entierros a manera de ofrendas. Drenaje subterráneo Drenaje subterráneo A un lado de la Estructura 2 del complejo arqueológico de la campana se encuentran algunas piedras talladas. Aquí también puede observarse parte del sistema subterráneo; realizado para recolectar y evacuar el agua de las lluvias. Originalmente estaba cubierto con piedras. Su trazo sigue el entorno de los edificios. Estructura 3 Se encuentra localizada al noroeste de la plaza y su base es de 43 por 9 m; es de grandes dimensiones y su edificación es a base de plataformas superpuestas y escalonadas similares a la de la Estructura 1. Posee dos accesos para poder subir a la parte superior y su elevación no supera los 3 metros. En su base se encuentran huecos donde se supone corría agua y se podía almacenar semillas para alimento. Este recinto esta ligado a la vida sacerdotal en La Campana pues en su interior los mismos sacerdotes se dedicaban a hacer ritos, además de ser su lugar de hospedaje. Estructura 4 Se encuentra localizada al sureste de la plaza y su base es de 60 por 24 m; es de grandes dimensiones y su edificación es a base de plataformas superpuestas y escalonadas. Posee de 3 diferentes accesos para poder subir a la parte superior y tiene una importante elevación con sistema de evacuación de aguas para la lluvia. Es importante recalcar que todo parece indicar que esta zona en realidad eran las viviendas de las gentes nobles que se pudieron extender en línea vertical por todo el noreste, la Estructura 4 cuenta con 11 cuartos medianos, en la antigüedad debió haber estado techada con hojas de palma sostenida por troncos de diferentes tipos. Se extiende también un acceso a la Estructura 5, y frente a la Estructura 4 existe una plaza con una pequeña construcción con fines rituales, así como un reloj solar a la entrada de la Estructura 5. Estructura 5 Edificio piramidal de forma cuadrada que domina al conjunto urbanístico y que su base mide 26 por 31 m. Constituye una muestra de la arquitectura monumental prehispánica, la cual es resultado del trabajo, voluntad social y creatividad artística de sus constructores. La estructura original contaba de varios cuerpos superpuestos, pero en la actualidad sólo se conservan tres. Sobre el imponente basamento encumbrado sobre el resto de las edificaciones se encontraba un templo en donde se rendía culto a una importante deidad que representaba a las fuerzas míticas de los fenómenos naturales. En el interior se encuentra otra construcción correspondiente a una época más antigua. Se observan modificaciones tardías en la parte izquierda del edificio. Estructura 6 Este edificio se caracteriza por sus enormes taludes y por pasillos que definen diferentes cuerpos; su forma y orientación obedecen a conceptos geométricos y astronómico-religiosos mesoamericanos. En su parte alta existen plazas, la sección inferior del templo tiene accesos escalonados y es el lugar en donde los sacerdotes llevaban a cabos sus ritos mágicos. Su orientación permitía observar sin obstáculos la salida y puesta del sol en fechas importantes de su calendario religioso. Fue utilizado y modificado también en algunos grupos prehispánicos tardíos. Su base mide 24 por 16 m. Juego de pelota Entre las estructuras 6 y 5 se encuentra el Juego de pelota, de base de 16 por 8 m; espacio definido por un patio rectangular, orientado sobre el eje Este-Oeste y delimitado por dos estructuras laterales de gran importancia. En este lugar se practicaba el Tlalchi, juego de pelota ritual cuyo desarrollo tenía trascendencia político-religiosa y un simbolismo asociado a la fertilidad. Aún después de abandonada, la urbe, continuó siendo un espacio de culto, el cual se llevaba a cabo mediante sencillas ofrendas que eran depositadas en los escombros que lo cubrían. Estructura 11 Adoratorio piramidal de base cuadrangular con cuatro accesos escalonados y que mide 24 por 9 m. Su orientación responde a la conjugación de principios arquitectónicos basados en formas geométricas con elementos astronómicos y el simbolismo asociado a los puntos cardinales. En su parte superior existió una especie de pequeña plataforma en donde se efectuaron ceremonias religiosas y políticas del culto prehispánico; en este edificio se detectaron dos épocas constructivas. La primera correspondiente al periodo Clásico (100 a. C. a 500 dC). Posteriormente se efectuaron modificaciones entre los años 700 y 900 dC. Estructura 12 La Estructura 12 consiste en una plataforma proyectada de manera notable, pues define a la plaza central, y a la vez constituye un elemento de comunicación con otra plaza situada al norte. A partir de ella se levantaron recintos y templos, posiblemente con el objeto de guardar los objetos materiales usados en los ritos. Por los vestigios que en el se actualmente se encuentran y observan, esta plataforma pudo haber sido la morada de quienes se dedicaban al culto religioso. Pirámide del Cascabel Es una estructura que posee en la parte inferior del acceso 1 un cascabel de serpiente esculpido en piedra, cuya forma simbólica esta relacionado con el culto acuático. La serpiente formaba parte de la representación del dios del agua (Tláloc), y estaba asociada con las nubes, la lluvia y el rayo. Se suponía que este último era una serpiente de fuego que pasaba por toda la zona y que al caer se hundía en la tierra. Representaciones similares se han encontrado en los templos de la cultura teotihuacana. Fila superior : Estructuras 1 a 4 Fila inferior : la Estructura 5, la Estructura 6, el juego de pelota, la pirámide de cascabel Acceso a la zona arqueológica La zona arqueológica de La Campana se encuentra al norte de la ciudad de Colima, en el municipio de Villa de Álvarez; ubicada a un costado de la Avenida Tecnológico de este municipio colimense. Las visitas a la zona arqueológica son de martes a domingo de 9:00 a 17:00 horas. El Chanal - archeological zone located some 4.5 kms. north of Colima. First explored by archeologist Vladimiro Rosado Ojeda in 1945, the site extends over some 140 hectares on both sides of the Rio Verde. It comprises ceremonial plazas, altars, pyramids and several ball courts. Particularly prevalent on the site are figures of the Rain God, Tlaloc. Characteristics of artifacts made of clay and obsidian with the use of metals indicate that the inhabitants of El Chanal were in some way related to Tula. The biggest and the oldest archeological zone in the state is "La Campana" from 600-900 AD. La Campana is located in Villa de Álvarez between ITC (Tec de Colima) and "La Comercial" mall. La Campana has the only "Tumba de Tiro" open to the public in Colima. Inside the grave you can see handmade figures like the little dogs and old instruments made of mud and obsidian.
      3. Con el nombre de cultura "Capacha" se conoce un complejo arqueológico de Colima, en el Occidente de Mesoamérica. La cultura Capacha fue la primera con rasgos complejos que se desarrolló en la región, aproximadamente entre los años 2000 a. C. y 1200 a. C. Fue estudiada y descubierta por Isabel Trusdell-Kelly, arqueóloga estadounidense que realizó excavaciones en la zona de Colima en el año de 1939. Las semejanzas entre las piezas de esta cultura y la cerámica contemporánea de la región de Ecuador apuntan a que hubo alguna relación muy temprana entre el Occidente de mesoamericano y las culturas andinas. Capacha fue contemporánea de otros desarrollos culturales importantes de Mesoamérica, como El Opeño, en Michoacán, y la primera fase de Tlatilco, en el valle de México. La extensión geográfica de las piezas de cerámica Capacha abarca toda la costa del océano Pacífico, entre los estados mexicanos de Sinaloa, en el norte, y Guerrero, en el sur. Especialmente importantes son los entierros descubiertos por Gordon F. Ekholm en Guasave, Sinaloa.
      4. "Goiás"
   4. "Guerrero"
      1. "Santa Prisca" Church of Santa Prisca and its Surroundings Coordinates: 18°33’16” N ; 99°36’20” W 1765 mt. a.s.l. Municipality of Taxco, Guerrero State, MEXICO The Church of Santa Prisca, along with its towers built in pink stone and its dome covered with polychrome tiles can be seen fi7om any point in town. Its construction took only seven years, from 1751 to 1758, a record time for the XVHI century. Its great artistic value lies in the total unity achieved between the whole and each of its parts, ranging from furniture, -structure, sculptures, paintings and ornaments, to the smallest detail. Its single crossshaped nave is very narrow due to the confined site where it was erected. The interior is magnificent. Nine Churrigueresque baroque altarpieces embellish the nave and transept, and three others can be found in the Chapel of Jesus Nazarene. Santa Prisca's innovations represent a revisionist and retrospective concert of the characteristic features of the baroque style, but at the same time they display a renewing spirit. It is one of the most important baroque works of art in the world, in which the best painting, architecture and sculpture techniques of a period were brought together. The central part of its facade is decorated with one of the most outstanding traditions of the baroque: a large relief extolling the baptism of Christ. The construction of this church was conceived entirely by Jos6 de la Borda, a rich New Spanish miner, as a way of thanking God for the prosperity of his mines. Therefore, this church was built as an homage to his religious zeal. Several contemporary buildings were erected in the area immediately surrounding the Church. These include the Borda House, the Humboldt House (now the Museum of Sacred Colonial Art), the Casa Grande and the former Convent of San Bernardino. A series of plazas are also located near the Church, such as Borda Plaza (which is the main garden), San Juan, Bemal, Parque de las Carnicerias, and Guerrero Park. All of these, along with the particular urban lay out with its winding stone-paved streets without sidewalks, create picturesque nooks and sites that characterise this mining town.
      2. "Acapulco" (Officially known as Acapulco de Juárez) is a city, and major sea port in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific coast of Mexico, 300 kilometres (190 mi) southwest from Mexico City. Acapulco is located on a deep, semi-circular bay. It is a port of call for shipping and cruising lines running between Panama and San Francisco, California, United States. As of the 2005 census, the population of the urbanized area was 616,394, while that of the administrative municipality was 717,766 people. The municipality, which has an area of 1,882.6 square kilometres (726.9 sq mi), includes numerous small localities outside of the city. The tourist resort city of Acapulco is the largest city in the state, far larger than the state capital Chilpancingo. The name "Acapulco" comes from the Nahuatl language, and means "place of big reeds". Geography The town was built on a narrow strip of low ground, scarcely half a mile (800 m) wide, between the shoreline and the lofty mountains that encircle the bay to the north and east. Access to the town from inland is through the mountains via a 2-kilometre (1.2 mi) tunnel that was constructed in the 1990s. A passage through the mountains, called Abra de San Nicolas, has been constructed, and it allows cooling sea breezes to reach the city. The climate is tropical, with warm to hot temperatures year-round. Precipitation is heavily concentrated in summer, while winter is mostly dry and sunny. History Archaic Era Archeological evidence shows that Acapulco has been inhabited since before 3000 BC. The first vestiges of human presence consist of figures and pottery made of clay, stone, and ceramic. The pieces found in the coastal region of "Puerto Marqués" are the earliest known ceramics from Mexico, and they could be the oldest in Mesoamerica. Cave paintings from 1200 BC and petroglyphs have been discovered on Pie de la Cuesta. They indicate the early presence of fishing settlements, with agriculture and hunting as secondary activities. In a mountainside near Palma Sola, situated in the "Veladero National Park" , calendaric beads and 18 giant granite stones engraved with anthropomorphic, zoomorphic and geometric details have been found. They were created between 200 BC and AD 600. During this period, nomadic tribes from the northeast of Mexico entered what is now the state of Guerrero. Evidence of their presence has been found near the city.
      3. "Tres Palos" Lake: Mangroves housing several wild birds surround it; it has a length of 15 kilometres with a 6 kilometres width on its widest part, and feeds with the waters of the Sábana River. The Encantada Beach is on its banks. It is located east of Acapulco nearby the airport.
      4. "Coyuca Lake" Its beautiful settings and its flora and fauna variety turn it into an extremely attractive place. It is possible to take motorboat rides to tour the Isles of La Montañosa, Los Pájaros, La Pelona and El Presidio, and discover their numerous bird species, with the white and black herons, the pelicans, the storks and the seagulls standing out. Besides, there is an important number of fishes such as the catfish, the bass, and the mojarra fish, just to mention some of them. It has an extension of roughly 10 kilometres from "Pie de la Cuesta" to Barra de Coyuca, with sport fishers and aquatic ski lovers mostly visiting it.
      5. "Palma Sola" Archaeological Compound: It is formed by a group of rock engraves depicting human figures in different positions. It is yet unknown when they were carved, though it is believed that they are from the pre-classical period, or perhaps even a little earlier. They are situated in El Veladero National Park, in the zone known as The Amphitheatre. They can be visited everyday from 10:00 hours to 18:00 hours. The Compound is located 6 kilometres north of Acapulco.
      6. "Chilpancingo de Los Bravos" It is the capital of the State of Guerrero, and it is located more than 130 kilometres away from Acapulco.
      7. Amongst its attractions the Caves of "Juxtlahuaca" , situated 60 kilometres southwest of Chilpancingo de Los Bravos, whose name in Náhuatl language means "Place of Wasps", stand out. There are rock paintings on the Cave's walls with images of chiefs and feathered serpents more than 3 thousand years old that might be related to the Olmeca Culture.
      8. "Ixtapa" and "Zihuatanejo" : Different places but which complement each other. The first one is a modern and lavish tourist complex that allows you to enjoy the waters of the Pacific; whilst the second one is an old and bucolic town of fishermen located 6 kilometres away. Fun at its most in two coastal zones in the State of Guerrero that form one of the most flashy tourist destinations in Mexico, at only 240 kilometres northwest of Acapulco.
   5. "Michoacan"
      1. "Tzintzuntzan" is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in Mexico and a former capital of the pre-Columbian Tarascan state. The site is located in the modern-day state of Michoacán in the municipio (municipality) also called Tzintzuntzan, on the eastern shore of Lake Pátzcuaro. The city was founded in the 13th century by the indigenous Tarascan (modern-day P'urhépecha) people, and subsequently became the capital of the Tarascan state replacing nearby Ihuatzio. Its name means "Place of the Hummingbirds" in the P'urhé language. The pre-Columbian city covered an area of about 7 km². The site, which stands on a hillside above the modern town, has the remains of many step pyramids of a design typically used by the Tarascans in their ritual buildings, known locally as yácatas (by extension, the present-day archaeological site is also known as "Las Yácatas"). The Tzintzuntzan yácatas are of several different shapes, some rectangular, some oval or circular, and others in the distinctive Tarascan "T" shape. The population of the ancient city is estimated to have peaked at somewhere between 25,000 to 35,000 people. [1] The population of the entire Lake Pátzcuaro basin was between 60,000 to 100,000, spread among 91 settlements of which Tzintzuntzan was the largest.[2] Tzintzuntzan was still the P'urhépecha capital when the Spaniards arrived in 1522. First contact, led by Nuño de Guzmán arrived in 1529, Chieftain Tangaxuan II was burned alive and the city largely dismantled to provide stones for Roman Catholic temples and civic buildings, most notably the large 16th century Franciscan Monastery of Santa Ana. Following the disgrace and recall of Nuño de Guzmán, Vasco de Quiroga was sent to the region, and Tzintzuntzán served as the headquarters of Spanish power in the area until the bishopric was relocated to Pátzcuaro in 1540.
      2. "Morelia" Historic Centre of Morelia Moreilia, Patrimonio de la Humanidad (spanish only) Michoacan. Mairie de Morelia N19 42 16 W101 11 30 Built in the 16th century, Morelia is an outstanding example of urban planning which combines the ideas of the Spanish Renaissance with the Mesoamerican experience. Well-adapted to the slopes of the hill site, its streets still follow the original layout. More than 200 historic buildings, all in the region's characteristic pink stone, reflect the town's architectural history, revealing a masterly and eclectic blend of the medieval spirit with Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassical elements. Morelia was the birthplace of several important personalities of independent Mexico and has played a major role in the country's history.
      3. "Monarch Butterfly" Breeding Sites - Protected natural areas in the highlands of the state of Michoacan. Millions of butterflys come to the area between November and March of each year, although numbers have declined sharply recently. See them before they're all gone. Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve Property : 13551.5520 ha Buffer zone: 42707.4980 ha N19 36 23 W100 14 30 The 56,259 ha biosphere lies within rugged forested mountains about 100 km northwest of Mexico City. Every autumn, millions, perhaps a billion, butterflies from wide areas of North America return to the site and cluster on small areas of the forest reserve, colouring its trees orange and literally bending their branches under their collective weight. In the spring, these butterflies begin an 8 month migration that takes them all the way to Eastern Canada and back, during which time four successive generations are born and die. How they find their way back to their overwintering site remains a mystery. The Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve World Heritage property protects key overwintering sites for the monarch butterfly. The overwintering concentration of butterflies in the property is a superlative natural phenomenon. The millions of monarch butterflies that return to the property every year bend tree branches by their weight, fill the sky when they take flight, and make a sound like light rain with the beating of their wings. Witnessing this unique phenomenon is an exceptional experience of nature. Criterion (vii): The overwintering concentration of the monarch butterfly in the property is the most dramatic manifestation of the phenomenon of insect migration. Up to a billion monarch butterflies return annually, from breeding areas as far away as Canada, to land in close-packed clusters within 14 overwintering colonies in the oyamel fir forests of central Mexico. The property protects 8 of these colonies and an estimated 70% of the total overwintering population of the monarch butterfly’s eastern population. Integrity The property includes more than half of the overwintering colonies of the monarch butterfly’s eastern population. They provide a good sample of the areas that are essential for maintaining this superlative natural phenomenon. The maintenance of the standing forest and the microclimates that they create is the key management requirement, thus any threat to the forests is of utmost concern. Illegal logging is a known threat to the property with potential direct impacts on its Outstanding Universal Value. Public use has been increasing and the levels of visitation and infrastructure provided require careful control both in relation to impacts on the ecosystem and the quality of experience provided by the property to visitors. Due to its migratory nature, the maintenance of the overwintering phenomenon also requires attention to the conservation of the monarch butterfly by those countries through which it travels during its life cycle. Requirements for Protection and Management The principal focus of protection and management should be to prevent illegal logging in the property. Priorities to achieve this include concerted planning and action between all relevant federal, state and local agencies, and work with local communities on environmental protection and the provision of alternative livelihoods to logging. As the overwintering phenomenon is a significant attractor to visitors, management also needs to be directed to achieving sustainable public use of the property. This should respect the quality of the visitor experience and promote benefit-sharing mechanisms for local communities as an incentive to enhance their support to the conservation of the property. Continued investment in coordinated continent-wide management of the migratory phenomenon is a further important dimension of site management. Achieving all of these priorities requires the provision of adequate and sustained institutional and financial support.
      4. "El Opeño" es un yacimiento arqueológico que se localiza en "Jacona de Plancarte" , un municipio del estado mexicano de Michoacán enclavado en el "Valle de Zamora" . Da su nombre a una cultura precolombina conocida especialmente por los materiales de cerámica encontrados en los complejos funerarios de la zona, mismos que han sido fechados en el Preclásico Tardío de Mesoamérica. La importancia de El Opeño en la arqueología mesoamericana radica en su antigüedad y en la amplia difusión de su estilo, contemporáneo de otros desarrollos culturales indígenas como la cultura Capacha y anterior a la cultura de Chupícuaro que se desarrolló en el Bajío. Las tumbas de El Opeño son las más antiguas de Mesoamérica. Han sido fechadas alrededor del siglo XVI a. C., por lo que anteceden el desarrollo de la cultura olmeca, que tuvo sus centros principales en la costa del golfo de México y floreció unos siglos más tarde. Los descubrimientos de El Opeño fueron un hito que permitió poner en tela de juicio el carácter que se atrubuía a los portadores de la cultura olmeca como los fundadores de Mesoamérica.1 Descripción El Opeño está constituido por un conjunto funerario que suele ser incluido en la tradición de las tumbas de tiro, que se difundió por gran parte del Occidente de Mesoamérica, sobre el territorio de lo que actualmente constituyen los estados de Jalisco, Colima, Nayarit y Michoacán.2 Los entierros de El Opeño, como los de el resto de las zonas donde se han encontrado materiales de la Tradición de las tumbas de tiro, se distinguen precisamente por su excepcionalidad en el marco de Mesoamérica. Ningún otro pueblo mesoamericano construyó antes del florecimiento ni después del declive de esta tradición monumentos funerarios de este tipo. Se trata de tumbas verticales, o casi verticales, que fueron excavadas en el tepetate o toba volcánica que forma parte del subsuelo de la región. El acceso a las cámaras funerarias subterráneas se efectuaba de modos diversos, por ejemplo, en Nayarit, es común que las tumbas cuenten con tiros muy profundos, aunque en El Opeño contaron con escaleras. En el complejo funerario de El Opeño han sido descubiertas doce tumbas, todas las cuales muestran indicios de planificación arquitectónica. Asimismo, el complejo en su totalidad está organizado en torno a un plan global.3 Las tumbas de El Opeño pueden ser consideradas el antecedente más antiguo de la llamada tradición de las tumbas de tiro, en la cual se suelen incluir los materiales de este yacimiento arqueológico michoacano. La arquitectura de El Opeño, como se ha señalado anteriormente, cuenta con características muy particulares que no fueron retomadas en las necrópolis más tardías de Jalisco, Colima y Nayarit. Es importante señalar que la arquitectura funeraria, con características similares o divergentes, fue practicada por los pueblos que vivieron en una amplia región de América continental, y en distintas épocas, en los tiempos anteriores a la llegada de los europeos. Esta región se extiende desde el llamado Occidente de Mesoamérica hasta el norte de Perú, siguiendo la costa del Océano Pacífico.4 La continuidad geográfica y temporal de estas prácticas requiere de análisis más profundos que permitan comprender mejor los vínculos entre estos pueblos.5 En torno a la necrópolis de El Opeño no se ha encontrado ningún resto material de las poblaciones de los constructores de las tumbas. Esto motivó que se les representara como un pueblo que se encontraba en la transición hacia el sedentarismo agrícola que caracterizó a las sociedades urbanas de Mesoamérica en el Preclásico Medio. Sin embargo, el análisis de los materiales arqueológicos encontrados en las tumbas —tanto los restos óseos de sus ocupantes como las ofrendas con que fueron enterrados— muestra que los constructores de las tumbas de El Opeño fueron miembros de un pueblo claramente sedentario, con una elevada estratificación social que se refleja en las diferencias entre los bienes ofrendados a los muertos.
   6. "Nayarit"
      1. Huichol Route through the sacred sites to "Huiricuta" ("Tatehuari Huajuye" ) Coordinates: 104° 10' West and 22°09' North 100° 46' West and 23° 56' North The "Huicholes" , heirs of Mesoamerican societies, make up one of the native groups that have survived with great vitality in America thanks to the rough topography of their territories, to its decentralized political organization and to their ability to adapt to the historical surroundings reflected by their active participation in the history of the West of Mexico. Nevertheless, the main strength of their cultural reproduction is the collective resolve to keep their ancestral traditions. An essential part of their cosmogony and identity is the pilgrimage through dozens of natural sacred sites, spread along a corridor of more than 800 kilometers that runs from the coast of the State of "Nayarit" to Huiricuta. These pilgrimage routes are what remain of the pre-Hispanic trade routes that joined the Pacific coast with the Gulf of Mexico. Among them the route to Huiricuta, to the west, stands out because of the role it has played in the cultural survival of the Huicholes, the frequency with which it is used and the number of users it has. Along the route, deities and the spirits of their ancestors (for example the cacallari) inhabit, certain species of wild fauna (wolves and reindeer) or natural phenomena like the wind or clouds (the tateima) are found. The Huicholes also identify some of these elements as “older brothers” or “teachers” (the tamatsi), who anoint the pilgrims providing them with wisdom and spiritual guidance, or with penalties and punishments. Deities and spirits dwell precisely in the sacred places, where according to the Huicholes they “utter their voices”. In certain areas there are concentrations of sacred sites that make up scenes like Huiricuta and the Huichol territory itself. Natural sacred sites are found on islets, moist soil, rivers, lagoons, springs, forests, mountains or rock formations. These show engravings, and have spiritual, bio-geographic, social or historical meanings. Pilgrimage routes run along a variety of ecosystems whose cultural attributes are linked to agricultural periods, crop gathering or hunting as part of a ritual cycle. The constellation of sanctuaries and traditional routes constitute the Huichol scenery as the cultural resonance of a community that, together with the ritual cycle, manifests itself as a continuous, dynamic and complex system. The fundamental purpose of their pilgrimage is to follow their ancestor’s steps to ask for rain and well-being. Along the route, the shamans recreate and transmit the tribal legacy to the young by means of chants, story-telling and complicated rituals. This legacy, in addition to shamanic, religious, or medical knowledge, includes the diversified use of ecosystems or the conservation of the genetic variety of the species they cultivate. This is why and considering that the Huichol language has no written form, pilgrimages perform a very particular function identified as an “itinerant Mesoamerican university”, main axis of a knowledge system based on nature, that gives the "Huixáritari" (Huicholes) their identity. This pilgrimage is the only way in which the Mesoamerican legacy of this ancestral culture can be kept. During the last five centuries, the pilgrimage has had the double purpose of establishing contact and trade with the mestizo and European cultures that have radically transformed the natural and cultural resources of the Huichol territory. Consequently, the ritual indigenous time that looks for a deep identification of the human being with the natural processes has been able to survive within a utilitarian environment of rapid changes and depredation. The route runs through two regions that are important to the world because of their contribution to biodiversity: the "Sierra Madre Occidental" and the "Chihuahua Desert" . The complex topography and the spectacular altitude ranges of the south of the Sierra Madre Occidental, allow the existence of a wide range of habitats that include tropical forests of deciduous and subdeciduous trees, spiny forests, thickets and grasslands, gallery forests, and pine forests –oak trees. The Chihuahua Desert is one of the three semi-desert areas biologically richer in the world. The habitats included in the southeast of this region such as xerophillus vegetation, thickets, grasslands and pine forests, lodge a notable wealth as far as diversity and endemicity.
         
         Mexico Cityst bussiga, San Luis de Potosisse (sõiduaeg 5–6 tundi), sealt järgmise bussiga Matehualasse ( sõit kestab 2,5 tundi) ja edasi juba järgmise bussiga Real de Catorce'sse ( 2 tundi sõitu).
         
         The town of Real de Catorce is located in the heart of the Catorce mountain range, in the state of San Luis Potosi, on the north of Mexico. It is 2,750 meters above sea level and the main access route is through a tunnel 2,300 meters long.
         
         When the mining industry ended, the image of St. Francis of Assisi which is currently located on the parish altar, started to become famous, Probably the people of Catorce who had emigrated, whenever they returned to their village commended themselves to San Francisco, or, as he began to be affectionately called: Panchito or Charrito, the image became extremely popular and miraculous, and thus, the tradition of the pilgrimages began. On October 4 of each year, the Saint's Day, thousands of faithful congregate to make their visit and ask for favors. To this day, the tradition has fully established and the festivities that lasted a couple of days now last for more than a month, beginning September 20 until late October. At the same time that this pilgrimage of Catholic origin takes place, there is another one and much more ancient, that has a secular origin, the one carried out by the Huicholes that arrive to the valley of Catorce to collect peyote, and to Cerro Quemado to deliver the holy offerings to their gods. The destiny of this region is to be a place of extraction, be it silver, peyote, or of the faithful who come with the purpose of receiving the blessings and favors of Charrito.
         
         La Magia de Real de Catorce y Huiricuta, Sitio Natural Sagrado Viernes 17 CUPO LIMITADO Viernes 17, salida a las 5:00 am Real de Catorce El pueblo de Real de Catorce está enclavado en el corazón de la sierra de Catorce, en el estado de San Luis Potosí, al norte de México. Se encuentra a 2750 metros de altitud y la principal vía de acceso es a través de un túnel de 2300 metros de longitud. Forma parte de los “Pueblos Mágicos” de México y goza de recursos y apoyos por parte del gobierno. El objetivo de la visita esta en percibir la magia e historia de Real de Catorce, está más fuerte que nunca y empezando el nuevo siglo con los recuerdos de su tiempo de esplendor y la esperanza que en el futuro se manifieste el auge, la cultura y el buen funcionamiento del pueblo. Huiricuta, Sitio Natural Sagrado del Pueblo Huichol, Cerro del Quemado, Centro ceremonial del Pueblo Huichol. Huiricuta, se encuentra situada en el noreste de la República Mexicana, formando parte del Desierto Chihuahuense, decretado como área natural protegida en la categoría de sitio histórico cultural, decretado el 27 octubre del 2000 y modificado el 9 de junio de 2001, cuenta con una superficie de 140,211.85 hectáreas, abarcando 7 municipios del estado, considerando en el decreto la ruta de peregrinación cultural del pueblo huichol. En Huiricuta existe una gran diversidad biológica de flora y fauna, además ha obtenido el reconocimiento por parte de la UNESCO como uno de los 14 sitios sagrados naturales del mundo y cuenta con el mapeo a pie de la ruta de peregrinación en el estado de San Luis Potosí teniendo una longitud de 138.78 kilómetros. El Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza (WWF), y la alianza para conservación de la religión, otorgaron en el año 2000 el reconocimiento al estado de San Luis Potosí en Katmandú, Nepal “Regalo Sagrado para un Planeta Vivo”, por los trabajos de conservación y restauración que el gobierno del Estado de San Luis Potosí que ha realizado en Huricuta El principal objetivo de la visita es mostrar la ANP estatal de Huiricuta, como un punto neurálgico religioso de grandes pueblos indígenas en la que destacan los Huicholes, Coras y Tepehuanes y que convergen en el altiplano Potosino. Tierra de dioses para el pueblo Huichol que se conserva intacta sus usos y costumbres que hace muy fascinante conocer su valor cultural e histórico de estas culturas indígenas y la interacción con el gobierno del estado el plan de manejo de dicha área. ITINERARIO Hora Actividad 07:30 hrs. Salida de San Luis Potosí a Real de Catorce 08:30 hrs. Lunch en el autobús 10:30 hrs. Llegada Real de Catorce 11:00 hrs. Caminata al Cerro del Quemado 13:00 hrs. Ceremonia en el Cerro del Quemado 14:30 hrs. Regreso de Cerro del Quemado a Real de Catorce 16:30 hrs. Comida en el Mezón de la Abundancia y en "El Minero Restaurant" en Real de Catorce 17:30 hrs. Regreso de Real de Catorce a San Luis Potosí COSTO Costo de recuperación $350.00 incluye: Transporte, alimentos y visitas guiadas. Cupo limitado a 40 personas; mínimo 20 para que se realice el viaje. Depósito Bancario: a la Cuenta No. 0447993110 en BANCOMER a nombre de la Fundación Produce de San Luis Potosí, A. C. Transferencia electrónica: CLABE interbancaria 012700004479931104, deberán incluir la referencia FPSLPAC. Envía tu ficha de depósito al correo segam_dsanchez@slp.gob.mx o al fax 018002636323 escribiendo el nombre del viajante
      2. "Matanchén" is the name of both the bay and one of the small towns located just south of "San Blas" , "Nayarit", on the Pacific coast of Mexico. It is known for its exceptionally long surf break. Las Islitas, one of the villages and surfing spots on Matanchén Bay, is documented by the Guinness Book of World Records as having the 'World's Longest Surfable Wave" at 5700 feet. A local surfer familiar with the conditions was quoted as saying "one quarter to half mile waves are not uncommon." Matanchén is also the site of one of the earliest settlements in Western Mexico. The site dates to approximately 2000-2100 B.C.E. The Preclassic period ran from 2500 BCE to 200 CE. Its beginnings are marked by the development of the first ceramic traditions in the West, specifically at sites such as Matanchén.
      3. "Goiás"
   7. "Oaxaca"
      1. "Monte Albán" Historic Centre of Oaxaca and Archaeological Site of Monte Albán Etat de Oaxaca de Juarez, municipalites de Oaxaca, "Xoxocotlan" et "Cuilapan" N17 03 43 W96 43 18 Inhabited over a period of 1,500 years by a succession of peoples – "Olmecs", "Zapotecs" and "Mixtecs" – the terraces, dams, canals, pyramids and artificial mounds of Monte Albán were literally carved out of the mountain and are the symbols of a sacred topography. The nearby city of Oaxaca, which is built on a grid pattern, is a good example of Spanish colonial town planning. The solidity and volume of the city's buildings show that they were adapted to the earthquake-prone region in which these architectural gems were constructed.
         • Mexico's World Heritage Sites Photographic Exhibition at UN Headquarters
         • Monte Alban (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia - INAH)(spanish only)
           
      2. "Lambityeco" is a small archaeological site in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is located just off Highway 190 between the city of Oaxaca and Mitla, about 25 km (15.5 miles) from the former. The site has been securely dated to the Late Classic Period.[1] Lambityeco is a small part of the larger site known as "Yeguih" , which is "Zapotec" for "small hill". The two main structures at Lambityeco are Mound 190 and Mound 195. Mound 190 is an elite residence with the entrance flanked by two imposing masks of Cocijo, the Zapotec rain god.[2] The site dates to the Late Classic and Early Postclassic.[3] The site is open to the public. Lambityeco Archaeological Ruins
      3. "Mitla" , Area of Archaeological Monuments Coordinates: 16°55'30" N - 96°21'28" W Mitla is the most representative Post-C@c (850-1521 A.D.) site in Oaxaca's Central Valleys. Delicate fretwork assemblages decorate its buildings, and it was the last city established in Oaxaca during Pre-Hispanic tiines. There are five monumental architectural groups in Mitla: North Group, Group of Columns, Creek Group, Calvary Group and South Group. The first three groups are laid out in squares, and the decoration of their buildings is outstanding. Series of delicately carved and assembled fretwork create patterns framed by panels, decorating the @es with unique geometrical designs. Two magnificent stone tomb chambers with cross ground plans were found in the Group of Columns. Both the Calvary and South Groups were laid out following a somewhat earlier plan in which square courts with central shrines are surrounded by pyramid platforms. Undoubtedly, Mitla is outstanding due to the ornamental features of its architecture. For example, varied and complicated designs included frets assembled with carved or sculptured mosaics decorated huge monolithic blocks used by ancient builders as linters. Walls were built with large, hewn stone blocks, and their revetment was laid without the use of mortar, just like the fretwork. This is evidence of the highly developed technique and aesthetic expression mastered by Mitla's ancient artists. After the Conquest, Mitla's structures were deeply affected when Catholic churches were erected on top of the remains of ancient buildings. However, because of this, Mitla was never abandoned and therefore it did not go through the natural process of deposition that characterises most archaeological sites. Pre-Hispanic structures survived within the Colonial town plan, and these remains are still visible amidst an urban context spanning three historic periods: Pre-Hispanic, Colonial and modern. From Wikipedia: Mitla is the name commonly given to an archaeological site located in the town of San Pablo Villa de Mitla in the Mexican state of "Oaxaca". While archaeological evidence shows that Mitla was occupied by 500 BC, the earliest construction dates to only about 200 AD. Construction of pre-Columbian style buildings continued up until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the 1520s. The town has been continually occupied ever since; part of the more recent town was built over pre-Hispanic Mitla, but some groups of old elite palace complexes remained. At its height Mitla had a population of approximately 10,000 people. The earliest structures (i.e., the Late Formative and Early Classic periods) at Mitla are "Zapotec"; the remainder are Postclassic in date, constructed during the Mixtec occupation of the site, but often displaying an interesting mix of Zapotec and Mixtec styles. Five main groups of buildings remain including the Grupo de las Columnas in the east of the site which is a former palace. It consists of three large rooms set around tombs and a courtyard. The palace walls are decorated with distinctive geometric mosaics that characterize Mitla's buildings. Each frieze consists of up to 100,000 separate pieces of cut stone. One of the rooms, known as the Salon de las Columnas, houses six monolithic pillars that once supported the roof. To the north is the Grupo de Iglesia centered around the colonial Catholic church. The pre-Columbian buildings that survived its construction are of similar design to those in the Grupo de las Columnas, but on a smaller scale. They still retain traces of paintwork and some artifacts which have been found at the site are displayed in the Museo Frisell de Arte Zapeteco Mitla in the centre of the town which closed temporarily for renovation in 2001. In 1494 the Aztecs conquered Mitla and sacked the city. Once the Spanish took over, they found their efforts to convert locals to Catholicism thwarted by competition from native beliefs, manifesting themselves at ancient buildings such as those at Mitla. To combat the problem, the Spanish built a new church on top of the footprint of a former temple , scavenging the original temple for building materials. A number of Spanish writers of the colonial era remark on the well built pre-Hispanic buildings here. Alexander von Humboldt published a description of the site in 1810. Some excavations and repair of buildings was done under the direction of Leopoldo Batres in 1901. The Mexican government made further excavations of the site in the mid 1930s and the early 1960s. Present day Mitla The official name of the present-day town is San Pablo Villa de Mitla. With a population of just over 7,000 people in 1990, Mitla is located about 45 km (some 26 miles) by road southeast of the state capital of Oaxaca, Oaxaca. The main group of pre-Hispanic buildings is at the north end of town. Today, the town of Mitla is a popular tourism destination for visitors to Oaxaca and has a small museum and hosts a small outdoor market on Saturdays. Most of the townspeople speak a variant of the "Zapotec" language ( ISO 639.-3[1] code zaw.). In Mitla and the surrounding towns are "palenques", small producers of mezcal where they produce the drink by hand from the heart of the agave plant. 5 km from Mitla is a small town called Matatlán, which, due to the number of palenques, is called the "mezcal capital of the world".
      4. Pre-Historic Caves of "Yagul" and "Mitla" in "Oaxaca"'s Central Valleys Coordinates: N 16°57'38"-16°55'27.5" W 96°26'8,5"-96°23'2,5" This property is made up of a series of caves and rocky shelters used since Pre-Historic times by small tribes of nomadic hunters-gatherers. Dry weather conditions, a relatively undisturbed and isolated setting enabled the preservation of evidence regarding the use of a large number of plants. This evidence includes remains of seeds, fibres from certain plants, burnt com and animal bones, along with stone utensils and tools made thousands of years ago. Likewise, various examples of rock paintings have survived, indicating the magic religious, as well as pragmatic, ideology of the cave dwellers. Kent Flannery's excavations in these caves (1968) have established a long sequence of human occupation going back to 8000 B.C. Social groups at that time were small and large hunter-gatherer nomadic tribes that lived off animals such as deer, rabbits, pigeons and turtles. This diet was complemented with plants, seeds, plentiful wild nuts and fiuks. These nomadic groups inhabited seasonal camps and set up temporary refuge in caves and rock shelters, leaving behind on the cave floors and surrounding areas a large amount of physical evidence, creating an extremely rich archaeological deposit. The transition from a nomadic to a sedentary life-style is. documented in Guild Naquitza Cave, Martinez Rock Shelter and White Cave, where man turned from hunter-gatherer to food producer. What processes triggered this transition is not quite clear yet. However, it is evident that such transition represented a crucial moment in the history of mankind. Evidence found in Guilá Naquitza Cave indicates that Pre-Historic peoples experimented continuously with plants that are ancestors of modem staples in Mesoamerican diet, like corn and squash. These caves are located in a small sierra of biotite andesitic tuff of igneous pyroclastic origins and are part of a series of more than 60 interconnected sites, only three of which have been excavated. These sites are also part of a hydrological basin crossed by rivers and creeks originating in the northern sierra, and by a section of low deciduous forest with well preserved native flora that spreads into the Valley of Mitla. All these elements are part of a large cultural and natural landscape that fostered the development of a cultural stage that was of utmost importance for civilisation. Yagul is an archaeological site and former city-state associated with the "Zapotec" civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, located in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. The site was declared one of the country's four Natural Monuments on 13 October 1998.[1] The site is also known locally as Pueblo Viejo (Old Village) and was occupied at the time of the Spanish Conquest. After the Conquest the population was relocated to the nearby modern town of Tlacolula where their descendants still live.[2][3] Yagul was first occupied around 500-100 BC. Around 500-700 AD, residential, civic and ceremonial structures were built at the site. However, most of the visible remains date to 1250-1521 AD, when the site functioned as the capital of a Postclassic city-state.[4] The site was excavated in the 1950s and 60s by archaeologists Ignacio Bernal and John Paddock.[2][5] Vestiges of human habitation in the area, namely cliff paintings at Caballito Blanco, date to at least 3000 BCE. After the abandonment of Monte Albán about 800 CE, the region's inhabitants established themselves in various small centers such as Lambityeco, Mitla and Yagul. Etymology Yagul comes from the "Zapotec" language, it is formed from ya (tree) and gul (old), hence "old tree".[1][2] Location Yagul is located just off Highway 190 between the city of Oaxaca and Mitla, about 36 km from the former.[1] The site is situated on a volcanic outcrop surrounded by fertile alluvial land. The Salado river flows to the south.[2] Site description The site is set around a hill, and can be divided into three principle areas; the fortress, the ceremonial center and the residential areas.[6] The construction stone at Yagul is mainly river cobbles formed from volcanic rock such as basalt.[2] About 30 tombs have been found at Yagul, sometimes located in pairs. A few of these bear hieroglyphic inscriptions.[7] Fortress A section of the fortress wall at Yagul. Situated atop the cliffs to the northeast of the site and protected by natural and artificial walls, it has an excellent vantage point over the whole Tlacolula Valley.[8] It has several lookout points, including one reached by a narrow bridge.[1] Residential area Unexcavated residential areas lie on terraces to the south, east and west of the hill.[1] Classic Period residences are to the northwest of the excavated ceremonial centre and lower class Postclassic residences are presumed to lie around the site core.[8] Ceremonial center The ceremonial center composes the vast majority of what has been excavated, and what can be seen today. Some of the structures in this area are: Ballcourt. The restored ballcourt has an east-west orientation and is the largest in the Valley of Oaxaca. A carved serpent's head, now in the Regional Museum in Oaxaca, was found fixed to the top of the south wall.[2][9] The ballcourt was built in the Classic Period between 500 and 700 AD, and then widened between 700 and 900 AD.[1] It has a total length of 47 meters and a central field length of 30 meters, and is 6 meters wide.[10] View of the ceremonial center at Yagul, looking southwest with the ballcourt at center, and the Palace of the Six Patios to the right. Palace of the Six Patios. This is a labyrinthine structure formed of an intricate complex of passageways and many rooms. It is formed of three elite complexes, each with two patios surrounded by rooms. In each pair of patios, the northern was probably a residence and the southern was possibly the administrative area. A tomb entrance is found in each patio.[1] The same layout is found at the nearby site of Mitla although the two sites were probably independent.[2] The walls are faced with dressed stones and stucco over a rough stone and clay core, the floors were of red stucco.[11] Patio 1 is a large open area immediately southeast of the Palace of the Six Patios. It has rooms on all sides except the south side. Immediately to the south of Patio 1 is a temple.[2] Patio 4 lies to the southeast of the ballcourt and is part of a temple-patio-altar complex formed from four mounds around a central altar. It was in use from at least the Classic Period through to the Postclassic. A sculpture of a frog-effigy lies at the base of the eastern mound.[2] Tomb 30. This Postclassic tomb lies underneath Patio 4. It is formed of three chambers with decorated panels, the principle chamber has a facade decorated with two human heads carved in stone. The door to the tomb is a stone slab with hieroglyphic inscriptions on both sides.[6][8] Council Chamber. This is a long, narrow chamber with an east-west orientation, lying to the south of a narrow "street". It was once decorated with stone mosaics and was entered via steps from Patio 1, which lies immediately to the south. The entrance is divided into 3 sections by two 2-meter wide pillars. Due to its non-residential nature and its lack of a shrine or temple, this room is presumed to have been administrative in function.[1][12] Decorated Street. This narrow "street" runs in an east-west direction between the Palace of the Six Patios to the north and the Council Chamber to the south. Its southern wall is over 40 meters long and was decorated with geometric stone mosaics similar to those at Mitla.[1] Building U. This building was built on an artificial platform in the northern part of the site, a tomb lies under its floor. It is reached by a stairway to the south and has a good view across most of the site.[1] The site is in the care of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History) and is open to the public.
      5. "Dainzú" A drawing of a ballplayer who holds a small ball in his upraised hand. This has been designated as Dainzú Relief 86. Dainzú is a "Zapotec" archaeological site in the Valley of Oaxaca, an ancient village near to and contemporary with Monte Alban and Mitla, and located about 20 km south-east of the modern-day city of city of Oaxaca, Mexico. Dainzú was first occupied 700-600 BC but the main phase of occupation dates from about 200 BC to 350 AD. The site was excavated in 1965 by Mexican archaeologist Ignacio Bernal. Etymology "Dainzú" means hill of the organ cactus in Zapotec,[1] it is formed from two Zapotec words: danni meaning "hill" and zu meaning "organ cactus".[2] Site layout and description The main site is located on the Valley of Oaxaca floor beside a tributary of the Salado river,[2] while steps and chambers carved into the rock on the peak above perhaps belonged to a shrine.[3] The site features a gallery of carved stone bas-reliefs similar in style to the danzante bas-reliefs at Monte Albán.[4] Forty-seven of these represent ball-players wearing protective equipment such as helmets, knee-guards and gauntlets and holding a small ball in one hand. A large ball-court was found nearby, with an east-west orientation. [5][6][1] Further basreliefs are carved into the living rock of the hilltop shrine.[4] The construction stone used at Dainzú is mainly river cobbles formed from volcanic rock such as basalt.[7] Building A is a large platform built against the west-facing hillside and has about 35 bas-reliefs carved into the southern side of its lower wall. Most of these represent ball-players,[1] while four represent the four gods of the ballgame.[4] Interspersed among the representations of ballplayers are a small number of bas-reliefs depicting priests making offerings, these stones are incised with calendrical dates and may represent specific rituals related to the ballgame.[8] Building B lies to the west of Building A. It is another large building, with various rooms, patios and stairways. At the northeast of Building B there is a tomb with a bas-relief of a jaguar carved into the stones that form the entrance. The head of the jaguar is etched into the lintel, with the jaguar's forelegs flanking the entrance.[2] The site is located 1 km south of Highway 190 between the city of Oaxaca and Mitla. The site is open to the public. Interpretation of reliefs Although a minority of researchers suggest that the reliefs are of fighters, perhaps hurling stones, the strong consensus is that they portray ballplayers. According to researcher Heather Orr, the reliefs form a processional sequence, showing specific moments from a ritual "fixed ball game with human sacrifice as the final outcome".
         • Rubbings of Dainzú bas-reliefs at FAMSI
         • Photos of Dainzú bas-reliefs
         • Dainzú at INAH
      6. "El Palmillo" is a Mesoamerican Classic Period archaeological site located in the Valley of Oaxaca, associated with the pre-Columbian "Zapotec" civilization which was centered in the valley and the surrounding highlands of the present-day state of Oaxaca, Mexico. Located on a hilltop in the eastern Tlacolula arm of the valley, El Palmillo is just to the south of the pre-Columbian site of Mitla and to the east of the major Zapotec regional center, Monte Albán. A major excavation at the site has been ongoing since 1999, led by Dr. Gary Feinman and Linda Nicholas of the Field Museum of Natural History.
      7. "Santa María del Tule" , "Oaxaca" The Ahuehuete Tree of Santa María del Tule Coordinates: 96° N - 17° W The church of Santa Maria del Tule stands in the town centre. It was built in stone over an ancient pagan shrine, and is surrounded by other buildings and areas belonging to the parish. A large walled plaza spreads in front of the church. The Tule, an ahuehuele or Mexican coniferous tree (taxodium mucronatum), stands near the church entrance. According to local chroniclers this tree is more than two thousand years old. Its extraordinary trunk is 35 metres in diameter and its enormous crown, nearly 30 metres high, is taller than the church and its two towers. The ancient indigenous population considered this tree as sacred. Through various legends, townsfolk have related the various animal-shaped protuberances of this imposing tree to their mythological world. With time, it has become a millennia-old landmark, referred to in Aztec chronicles as the symbol of the town where it is located. To this day, it has kept this distinction both at state and national level. From Wikipedia: Coordinates: 17°03′N 96°38′W Elevation 1,560 m (5,118 ft) Time zone CST (UTC-6) Santa María del Tule is a town and a municipality in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is located 11 kilometers (6 miles) SE of the city of Oaxaca on Highway 190, passing the city and ruins of Mitla.[1] It sits at an altitude of 1,560 meters above sea level. The town and municipality are named for the patron saint of the place, the Virgin Mary and “Tule” comes from the Náhuatl word “tulle” or “tullin” which means bullrush plant. The area where the town stands used to be a lake surrounded by cypresses. The town’s Baroque-style church is called El Templo de Santa María de la Asunción (Temple of the Virgin Mary of the Assumption) and dates from the 18th century. The 15th of August is the Virgin’s feast day. The Árbol del Tule, a bald cypress tree located in front of the church, was recorded in 1917, by George O'Neill, author of "Messages of Flowers" as being in actual age between 4,000 to 6,000 years old. This would make it the oldest of its kind, still here on this planet alive and well. It is visited every year by visitors from all over the world. This tree, and its trunk and branches, have been affectionately referred to by visitors for the many shapes seen in it, such as “the Elephant”, “the Lion”, “the Three Kings”, “the Deer”, “the Pineapple” and “the Fish” The town has a celebration in honor of the tree on the second Monday of October. As municipal seat, Tule has governing authority over the following communities: Güendulain, Kilómetro Dieciséis Punto Cinco, and Paraje el Corralito.
      8. "Coixtlahuaca" (Chocho: Nguichee; Mixtec: Yodzocoo; Nahuatl: Coaixtlahuacan) was a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican state in the Mixteca Alta (now in Oaxaca, Mexico). Coixtlahuaca was a multi-ethnic polity, inhabited by both Chochos and Mixtecs. In addition to the Chocho and Mixtec languages, Nahuatl was used as a lingua franca. Its name means "plain of snakes". Coixtlahuaca was conquered by the Aztecs under Moctezuma I in the 15th century. According to Hernán Cortés, envoys of Coixtlahuaca surrendered to the Spanish in September 1520. Coixtlahuaca was incorporated into New Spain as the municipality of San Juan Bautista Coixtlahuaca. Chocho (also Chocholtec, Chocholteco Chochotec, Chochon, or Ngigua) is a language of the Popolocan branch of the Oto-Manguean linguistic family spoken in Mexico in the following communities of Oaxaca: "Santa María Nativitas" , San Juan Bautista Coixtlahuaca, "San Miguel Tulancingo" .
      9. "Tilantongo" was a Mixtec citystate in the Mixteca Alta region of the State of Oaxaca which is now visible as an archeological site and a modern town of Santiago Tilantongo. It is located at 17°15' N. Lat. and 97°17' W. Long. Its Mixtec name was Ñuu Tnoo-Huahi Andehui meaning Black Town-Temple of Heaven[1] Archeological excavations conducted by Alfonso Caso in the sixties suggest that Tilantongo is among the oldest settlements in Oaxaca with architecture from the preclassic Monte Albán I phase. Preclassic and Classic remains were found at Monte Negro and the Postclassic settlement was located in the present day town of Tilantongo, slightly north of the classic settlement. The documentary record show that Tilantongo was an important Mixtec polity in the Postclassic period. Mixtec picture codexes such as the Codex Zouche-Nuttall tell the history of Lord 8 Deer who ruled Tilantongo in the eleventh century, and how he linked the Tilantongo dynasty with the central Mexican Toltecs.
      10. "San José Mogote" is a pre-Columbian archaeological site of the "Zapotec", a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in the region of what is now the Mexican state of Oaxaca. A forerunner to the better-known Zapotec site of Monte Albán, San José Mogote was the largest and most important settlement in the Valley of Oaxaca during the Early and Middle Formative periods (ca. 1500-500 BCE) of Mesoamerican cultural development.[1] Situated in the fertile bottomlands of the Etla arm of the Valley of Oaxaca, the site is located two blocks from the community museum in the present-day village of San José Mogote, which is about 7.5 miles (12 kilometers) northwest of the city of Oaxaca (Evans 2004:122). San José Mogote is considered to be the oldest permanent agricultural villages in the Oaxaca Valley and probably the first settlement in the area to use pottery. It has also "...produced Mexico’s oldest known defensive palisades and ceremonial buildings (1300 B.C.), early use of adobe (850 B.C.), the first evidence of Zapotec hieroglyphic writing (600 B.C.), and early examples of architectural terracing, craft specialization, and irrigation (1150-850 B.C.)."[2] Archaeological investigations conducted over the previous two decades (e.g., Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus) have built an emerging picture of San José Mogote as an early center of Zapotec culture, which was later supplanted or overtaken by Monte Albán. From its beginnings as a cluster of family dwellings San José Mogote grew to incorporate monumental public structures indicative of a larger and complex political center that ruled over a number of subsidiary settlements in the Valley of Oaxaca, receiving tribute and services from the region. For as-yet unclear reasons, its status diminished and it became a tributary to the new Zapotec political center and capital, Monte Albán. Regional layout Huitzo, Santa Marta Etla, Hacienda Blanca, Tomaltepec, Zaachila, Abasolo, Mitla, Tilcajete, Zegache, and Santa Ana Tlapacoyan were just a few of the small settlements that supported San José Mogote, which was located in the most developed, north central area of the Valley of Oaxaca. Development of civilization in the Oaxaca Valley Between 1500 and 1150 BCE San José Mogote grew from a few house structures to a village occupying a land area of about 2000 m2 (five acres), the largest of some 25 villages in the Valley of the Oaxaca and the only community in the area with public buildings (Price and Feinman 2005:320-321). The introduction of two methods of irrigation may have been responsible for improving agricultural productivity. These included running irrigation ditches from streams and "pot irrigation", which consisted of dipping water out of a number of shallow wells to pour onto the crops (Evans 2004, p. 145). Settlement at the site consists of a number of distinct households that form the basic social units at San José Mogote. A typical household unit at San José Mogote contained braziers, earth ovens and/or hearths for cooking, stone manos and metates for grinding, and blackened pottery. Food, including maize, was stored in underground pits that were bell-shaped and located outside the house walls. Later, trash was dumped into these pits, forming midden deposits. Burials and other activity areas were also located in areas adjacent to the house structures. Evidence of ritual includes human and animal figurines associated with burials. Basic indicators of long-distance trade include obsidian chipped stone artifacts. Obsidian is a material not locally available in the Valley of Oaxaca. After 1150 BCE other settlements in the area remained small, but the village of San José Mogote increased in population and in the elaboration of its public structures, an indication of its role as the controlling capital over the other villages. Between 900 and 600 BCE, the population in the valley increased threefold to 2000 people living in 40 communities, with half of that number residing in San José Mogote, which grew to 50 acres (200,000 m2) in size (Evans 2004, p. 145). A community building, which has been called a "men's home", is believed to have served as a place where the men of the village could gather for civic and ceremonial purposes. The building's ceremonial importance is signified by its orientation of eight degrees west of north. La Venta, an important Olmec site, has the same orientation, which indicates an understanding of astronomy and a calendar system (Evans 2004, pp. 122-123). Exclusively at San José Mogote mirrors of polished magnetite were made and traded to the Olmec Gulf Coast, some 250 miles (400 km) distant. Trade with other areas is also suggested by the greater quantities of obsidian and ceremonial objects, such as drums made from turtle shells, conch-shell trumpets, and stingray spines, as well as pottery designs associated with the Olmec groups, especially at the site of San José de Mogote (Price and Feinman 2005, p. 321). By 700 BC the population of San José Mogote continued to increase. Between 700 and 500 BC, 3500 people occupied the Valley of Oaxaca, with about 1000 living at San José Mogote, which covered approximately 60 Hectares (150 acres) (Evans 2004, p. 187). Major public buildings constructed with adobe bricks and large blocks of stone were built on top of dirt mounds. The largest complex of the area prior to 500 BCE was Mound 1 at San José Mogote, which was constructed atop a hill that was augmented to a height of 15 m (50 feet). Political organization In this relatively short period of time the region's emergent "Zapotec" civilization experienced a shift in social ranking – the transformation from an autonomous, egalitarian tribal community, to that of a socially stratified society – a "defining moment" in history that would be mirrored throughout the Mesoamerican world at sites like Paso de la Amada and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, among many others. According to John E. Clark, "by the end of the San Jose Phase, San Jose Mogote was clearly...a chiefdom". It is not known precisely when or how hereditary inequalities emerged at San Jose Mogote (or anywhere else in Mesoamerica, for that matter) but there are some excellent indicators that give clues as to how this transformation took place and how it was exploited at San Jose Mogote. One widely accepted theory about the transformation of autonomous communities to chiefdoms is that an individual, or group of individuals must have used some degree of coercion to begin controlling others in their community. Stronger factions may have used coercion to force weaker factions to submit to their desires, and in order to do this they may have obtained their strength through a number of different ways. First, canny choices of farming plots allowed an individual or group of individuals to systematically gain an upper hand in crop production. Second, good alliance-building tactics may have been performed to stave off attacks by competing factions. And, lastly, healthy offspring would have ensured that an individual's lineage was secure for long after they were gone, allowing strong hereditary associations to control the fate of the dynasty. The theory of reciprocity may have been utilized by one member of the community to gain control over others. For instance, if an individual farmer might have had an overly abundant crop one season, that farmer might have been able to use the excess food to hold a community feast, in which he may have been able to persuade others subconsciously, using the theory of reciprocity, to obtain from them labor or goods that the farmer than may have been able to use to slowly gain an economic advantage over his peers. It is also thought that a member of one of these early Mesoamerican communities may have also claimed to possess spiritual and/or supernatural powers. This would enable an individual to gain a foothold up in social ranking, as that individual alone would become the only link for ordinary members of a society to communicate with the spirit world. Since spirituality played such an important role in ancient Mesoamerica, claims, whether truly valid or not, to possessing supernatural powers would be a crucial determinant of higher social ranking within a society. Some or all of these factors are believed to have directly contributed to the social stratification at San José Mogote. It is not known exactly when these events may have occurred, although it is believed to be a gradual development instead of an overnight procedure. Once San José Mogote became a chiefdom, it began to use its authority to gain control over local communities. Supported by smaller villages, like the tiny farming community of Tierras Largas, located about ten miles (16 km) to the southeast, San Jose Mogote became known as a sort of "capital", or central area of trade and command, for dozens of surrounding dwellings. In order for San José Mogote to attain this regional, economic and political dominance, in all likely events, for San José Mogote itself to become a regional leader, the people of San José Mogote must have first elected an individual powerful enough to influence and persuade people living in local villages to cooperate with them. The scale of buildings and the materials imported to erect them clearly indicate that San José Mogote’s leaders were able to control people in the surrounding countryside. Structures, size, and population San José Mogote had many small dwellings dotting its 20 hectare (c. 50 acres) landscape that were used to house around 1,000 people, or roughly half the population of the entire Valley of Oaxaca during the San José Phase. The construction of a special men’s meeting hall was found inside the boundaries of San José Mogote and was evidently rebuilt many times over the years. Structures 1 and 2 at San José Mogote together form an impressive, multi-level public-scale building that is identified as a place where an ethnically diverse community may have been able to come together to discuss important issues of the time. Innovations and art Iron ores were a local product of the Valley of Oaxaca. Because San José Mogote was the central area of trade in this region, it utilized its rich resource of iron ore to manufacture polished stone mirrors, many of which have been found as far as the Olmec Gulf Coast Heartland. Two primary motifs are found on pottery vessels from the Valley of Oaxaca: the forces of earth and sky, symbolically represented by earthquakes or lightning, respectively. Small villages tended to have pottery vessels with lightning, or sky, motifs. Tierras Largas had pottery that favored earthquake, or earth, motifs. And San José Mogote had a mixture of both. Crop productivity may have seen an increase at San José Mogote due to the initiation of two simple irrigation techniques: Pot irrigation and Irrigation ditches. Pot irrigation involved digging many shallow wells in order to accumulate water, and then scooping up that water to use on surrounding plants. Irrigation ditches were small-scale systems used to tap into streams in order to allow water to flow over the plants. Monument 3 at San Jose Mogote. The two shaded glyphs between his legs are likely his name, Earthquake 1. Monument 3 A flat, carved stone, designated Monument 3, was placed as a doorstep to the ceremonial structure (Price and Feinman 2005, p. 321). The carving is of a naked man with "a puffy, slitted eye, lips drawn back in a grimace, overall posture of vulnerability . . . rounded elements on the chest and abdomen suggesting the guts after disembowlment."[3] Glyphs depict drops of blood and a possible calendar day-name "1 Earthquake." These are the earliest "Zapotec" glyphs known to exist. While personal bloodletting was suggested by the stingray spines and similar objects made of obsidian or jade, the figure depicted on Monument 3 shows sacrifice of a victim, probably a captive, on a societal level.[4] In a later time period, monuments carved with similar figures, called danzantes (dancers), were present at Monte Albán.[5] Later the public structures on Mound 1 were rebuilt as a residence for a high-ranking family.[6] By 500 BCE, with the emergence of Monte Albán as the area's main city, San José Mogote's 1000 years of dominance ended, and it was relegated to the status of a lesser community that fell under Monte Albán's control.[7] Some of the artifacts from the San José Mogote archaeological site may be viewed in the town of San José Mogote’s Community Museum, which is located in the El Cacique Hacienda. San Jose Mogote pictures, George and Audrey DeLange
      11. "Zaachila" (the "Zapotec" name; Nahuatl: Teotzapotlan; Mixtec: Ñuhu Tocuisi) is a town in Oaxaca, Mexico, 6 km from the city of Oaxaca. It is also an archaeological site consisting of the remains of an important post-classic Zapotec city of the same name. A large unexplored pyramid mound sits near the center of the town. Although largely un-excavated, two tombs were discovered at the site in 1962 [1]. These tombs are thought to belong to important Mixtec persons.[2] The history of the pre-hispanic city is unclear. One theory is that the site flourished 1100 and 1521 A.D.. Another theory is that the city was founded in 1399 and could be compared to Tenochtitlan, as it was a city in the middle of a lake. The full extent of the ancient city is not known either, principally because excavation is impeded by the fact that most mounds have inhabited structures on them. [3] Its church is called “Nuestra Señora de la Natividad” (Our Lady of the Nativity) and its market day is Thursday.
      12. "Guiengola" is a "Zapotec" archeological site located 14 km north of Tehuantepec.[1], and 243 km southeast of Oaxaca city on Federal Highway 190. The visible ruins are located between a hill and a river that each carry the name of Guiengola. The name means “large stone” in the local variant of the Zapotec language.[2] There are two main tombs that have been excavated, and both seem to be family interment sites. Both have front chambers that are for religious idols, while the rear chambers are for the burial of important people. [3] The site also has fortified walls, houses, ball fields, other tombs and a very large “palace” with remains of artificial ponds and terraces. [1] In the center of the site are 2 plazas, one lower than the other, and 2 pyramids, one to the east and one to the west.[2] It was constructed in the Post-Classic Mesoamerican period (1350-1521). The site was a Zapotec stronghold against the Aztecs, who never did conquer it. The last emperor of the area was Cocijoeza, who defended it successfully against Ahuizotl, ending hostilities by marrying one of Ahuizotl’s daughters.[2] While it was abandoned by the Zapotecs upon the conquest of the Spanish, the Spaniards never occupied it, leaving the ruins as they were. Guia Turistica de Oaxaca Guiengola
      13. "Tehuantepec" (in full, Santo Domingo Tehuantepec) is a town and municipality in the southeast of the Mexican state of Oaxaca. The 2005 census reported a population of 39,529 in the town and 57,163 in the entire municipality, which has an areal extent of 965.8 km² (372.9 sq mi). The town was the eighth-largest community in the state at the 2005 census. The name comes from the Nahuatl Tecuantepec, meaning "maneater hill". The town It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tehuantepec. The town gives its name to the isthmus, gulf, and railway of Tehuantepec, and stands about 25 km (15 mi) from the mouth of the Tehuantepec River. The city of Oaxaca is about 250 km away, and the nearest city is Salina Cruz at a distance of 13 km. It occupies the slope of a hill on the Pacific side of the divide, with a beautiful view of the river valley and the distant sierras to the north. The population is composed almost wholly of indigenous "Zapotec"s. The women are the traders in Tehuantepec and do little menial work. Known as "Tehuanas," these women are known throughout Mexico for their colorful dresses, assertive personalities, and relatively equal relations with men, leading some to characterize them as "matriarchal." Local industries include the distilling of caña (a cane spirit) and the weaving of cotton fabrics dyed with the juice of a marine shellfish (Purpura patula) found on the neighboring coast. Indigo was formerly grown in the vicinity and cochineal gathered for export, but both of these industries have declined. Porfirio Díaz, as a captain of the Mexican Army, had his headquarters in Tehuantepec in the 19th century during the early years of the French intervention in Mexico. In the late 19th century, the American engineer James Buchanan Eads proposed to the United States Congress the idea of a rail system for moving ships between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. His idea was approved in 1887 by the Congress but promptly blocked by the United States House of Representatives, as the United States was already considering the idea of building a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. A more conventional railway was finally completed in 1906.[1] Its Palacio Municipal was built in 1868. The Church of Santo Domingo de Guzmán was built in the 16th century, originally as an open-air chapel but has since been converted to a cathedral. Its old cloister is now the Casa de la Cultura (House of Culture). Smaller churches include those located in the neighborhoods of Sanl Pedro, Santa María and San Sebastián, also house notable works of art. Taxis in the town are 3-wheeled motocycles where passengers ride while standing. A notabe person from this area is Juana Catalina Romero, who was an influential businesswoman and close associate of President Porfirio Díaz.[2] The municipality As municipal seat, Tehuantepec has governing jurisdiction over the following communities: Aguascalientes de Mazatán, Barrio Asunción de María, Barrio Liesa, Barrio Santa Cruz, Barrio Santa Cruz (Quinta Sección), Buenos Aires, Cajón de Piedra, Colonia Alejandro Cruz Martínez, Colonia Benito Juárez, Colonia Huayacán, Colonia Jordán, Colonia Lázaro Cárdenas, Colonia San Luis, Colonia Santa Elena de la Cruz, Concepción Bamba, Congregación Agrícola Cinco de Mayo, Ejido el Jordán, Ejido Guichivere, El Cairo, El Guayacán, El Limón, El Manguito, El Pescador, El Tablón, El Zapote (El Zapotal), Ensenada Chipehua, Flor de Azalea, Fraccionamiento Guadalupe Hinojosa de Murat, Garrapatero, Guelaguechi, La Brecha (Lázaro Cárdenas), La Ladrillera, La Noria, La Palma, Las Arenas, Las Cruces, Las Láminas, Las Pilas, Las Tejas, Los Cabrera, Los Mangos, Los Manguitos, Morro de Mazatán, Parcela Ochenta, Paso Alicia, Paso Tino (Rancho Hermanos Díaz), Pearson, Pishishi, Playa Cangrejo, Pozorrillo, Quince de Septiembre, Ranchito de Carrizal (Piedra Bola), Rancho Alfonso Jarquín, Rancho Doctor Raúl Gutiérrez Santos, Rancho el Bronco, Rancho Jerónimo Cordero, Rancho Loma Bonita 1, Rancho Loma Bonita 2, Rancho Quinta San Felipe de Jesús, Rancho Reforma, Rancho Rolando Medrano, Rincón Moreno, Rincón Tagolaba (Rinconcito), San Antonio, San José el Paraíso, San Juan Zaragoza, San Vicente Mazatán, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz Bamba y Garrapatero, Santa Cruz Hidalgo, Santa Cruz Miramar, Santa Gertrudis Miramar, Santa Isabel de la Reforma, Santa María Nativitas Coatlán, Santa Rita, Tierra Negra, and Zanjón y Garrapatero
      14. "Tequisistlán" Magdalena Tequisistlán estas unu el la 570 komunumoj de la meksika subŝtato Oaxaca. La ĉefurbo de la komunumo estas Magdalena Tequisistlan. La ŝlosilnumero de la komunumo laŭ la INEGI, do laŭ la nacia geografia instituto estas 20 052. Magdalena Tequisistlán apartenas al la distrikto Tehuantepec al kiuj apartenas entute 19 komunumoj. Ĝi situas en la regiono Istmo, kiu apartenas al la sudorienta parto de la subŝtato Oaxaca kun limo al la pacifika oceano. La komunumo havis en 2005 (lasta popolnombrado de la INEGI) 6014 loĝantojn. El tiuj estis 2913 viroj kaj 3101 virinoj. La komunumo havas surfacon de 599.64 kvadratkilometroj. La meza alteco estas 190 metroj super la marnivelo. Situo de la koncerna distrikto kaj regiono interne de la subŝtato Oaxaca. En la jaro 2000 (laŭ INEGI) en la komunumo vivis 281 indiĝenoj. El tiuj 215 aĝis pli ol 5 jaroj. Entute 215 personoj estis dulingvaj (hispana kaj indiĝena lingvoj). "Tequistlateco" has been used in publications, but true Tequistlateco was spoken in Tequisistlán town, and is now extinct. Southernmost part of Oaxaca, west of the Isthmus of "Tehuantepec" , "San José Chiltepec" , "SanLucasIxcatepec" , "San Pedro Huamelula" and "Santiago Astata" .
      15. "San Mateo del Mar" "Huave" is spoken in the four coastal towns of "San Francisco del Mar" , "San Dionisio del Mar" , San Mateo del Mar and "Santa Catarina del Mar" within the state of Oaxaca. The most vibrant speech community is in San Mateo del Mar which was fairly isolated until recently. El Asentamiento Prehispánico de Huamelula El rasgo más notable del antiguo asentamiento de Huamelula es un recinto cívico-ceremonial que cuenta con dos montículos monumentales, un patio de juego de pelota (Figura 11, arriba, y Figura 12, abajo), y los restos de otros dos edificios monumentales que fueron destruidos recientemente.5 La distribución de la alfarería de superficie alrededor de Huamelula indica que RH03 El Recibimiento y RH04 La Powa eran barrios o caseríos contemporáneos ubicados fuera del centro cívico-ceremonial, en tanto que una parte más extensa de la zona residencial ha quedado enterrada debajo del pueblo actual. Mapeamos lo que quedaba del recinto cívico y excavamos ocho pozos de prueba estratigráficos, dentro del recinto y en las zonas residenciales adyacentes (Figura 13). Los pozos de prueba Op1 y Op5 se abrieron junto al montículo M2, y dejaron al descubierto los rastros más antiguos de arquitectura elaborada en el valle del río Huamelula. En el pozo de prueba Op1, un piso encalado de yeso sellaba un depósito poco profundo de tiestos de cerámica pulida y conchas marinas, a una profundidad de aproximadamente 1.6 m (Figura 14, abajo). Un trozo de carbón asociado fue fechado por medio de un fechamiento radiocarbónico de espectrometría de aceleración de masas y produjo una fecha calibrada entre el 210 y el 410 d.C.6 Así, determinaría el posible origen más antiguo de la construcción del piso encalado hacia el período Clásico Temprano (300-600 d.C.) Las vasijas cónicas trípodes con soportes sólidos en forma de plaquetas que se encontraron sobre la superficie, cerca de arquitectura elaborada, en RH01, RH03, y RH08, también son conocidas desde el período Clásico (300-900 d.C.) en la costa central oaxaqueña (Brockington 1966), en Istmo de Tehuantepec (Wallrath 1967) y en las tierras bajas mayas del norte (Vallo 2000). En la costa, este estilo de alfarería continuó posiblemente hasta el período Posclásico Temprano (900-1200 d.C.; véase Brockington 1966; Brockington y Long 1974). En el período Posclásico, los sectores del sitio de Huamelula continuaron estando ocupados o fueron reocupados. Además, hacia el norte y este del Barrio La Soledad, se desarrollaron grandes zonas residenciales. Si las extensas zonas residenciales de RH11 La Mishi y RH13 Mish Cristo no son simplemente producto de residencias que fueron cambiando de lugar internamente, entonces estarían indicando que la población creció en tamaño y desarrolló barrios adicionales. Más aún, hemos detectado residencias aisladas o caseríos en RH02, RH06, RH09, y RH10, que revelaron alfarería tanto del Posclásico como de la época colonial. Mientras que todos los datos de que disponemos sugieren que Huamelula creció en tamaño durante el Posclásico Tardío, parecería que el recinto cívico-ceremonial del período Clásico en el Barrio La Soledad, ya hacia el período Posclásico Tardío había perdido su función original. En el extremo norte del patio de juego de pelota, un alineamiento de piedras señala un edificio pequeño de fecha desconocida, ubicado encima del ya erosionado piso del patio. Si este elemento no data de la época colonial o principios de la moderna, podría estar reflejando un reacomodamiento ocurrido en el Posclásico de materiales y espacio más antiguos. Las estructuras residenciales adyacentes, hacia el oeste del recinto cívico-ceremonial, revelaron alfarería diagnóstica sólo del Posclásico Tardío o del período Colonial Temprano. Allí, el pozo de prueba Op6 dejó al descubierto un depósito de basura asociado con el diseño de casas residenciales (véase Figura 13). El análisis de espectrometría por activación neutrónica practicado en una muestra de carbón de dicho depósito produjo una fecha calibrada entre los años 1420 y 1500 d.C. Las dos fechas de radiocarbono marcan dos fases de ocupación en y alrededor del actual pueblo de "San Pedro Huamelula". La más antigua probablemente coincide con el desarrollo del recinto cívico-ceremonial durante el período Clásico, y su función como centro de culto del juego de pelota ritual en el Clásico Tardío. El centro cívico-ceremonial posclásico puede haberse trasladado hacia donde hoy en día se encuentra el centro del actual pueblo de "San Pedro Huamelula"; según los dichos de algunas personas del lugar, se hallaron restos arqueológicos debajo de la iglesia parroquial de San Pedro. Las iglesias coloniales de San Pedro y San Sebastián (véase Garrido Cardona 1995) aparentemente marcarían la antigua cabecera colonial, según lo que parece indicar nuestro sitio RH12 Huamelula Centro. La alfarería del Posclásico Temprano no se distingue bien de las cerámicas más tempranas y posteriores; la clasificación cerámica de Brockington y Long (1974) podría implicar que los conjuntos cerámicos del Clásico Tardío y del Posclásico Temprano eran en realidad bastante similares. En consecuencia, podría plantearse que Huamelula continuó siendo un lugar de asentamiento durante el período Posclásico Temprano, pero sin que sea posible discernir la alfarería asociada. Por otro lado, la falta de toda distinción cerámica claramente definida podría indicar que la ocupación del Clásico Tardío y la del Posclásico Tardío estuvieron separadas por un episodio de abandono o decrecimiento demográfico de Huamelula. En un escenario de ese tipo, el recinto cívico-ceremonial del período Clásico en RH01 tendría que haber sido reusado con fines domésticos y tal vez para entierros por una sociedad diferente, del Posclásico Tardío. Notas Finales Hace varios años, pasaron la topadora sobre un montículo monumental ubicado cerca del patio de juego de pelota a fin de emplazar allí una cancha de baseball. Gracias a los esfuerzos de Sara de León Chávez, ex directora del Centro Coordinador INI de Huamelula, unos niños escolares, recogieron en el sitio afectado, un notable conjunto de artefactos. Este material constituye la colección más importante del Museo Chontal de "San Pedro Huamelula", e incluye las esculturas de piedra estilo hacha y grandes fragmentos de recipientes. El fechamiento por espectrometría de aceleración de masas y la calibración de dos muestras de carbón (B160, B197) estuvo a cargo de Beta Analytic, Inc., de Miami.

4. "Yucatan" Peninsula

   Jungle and impressive Mayan archaeological sites, along with the Caribbean coast The Yucatán Peninsula is a region of southeastern Mexico, consisting of the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, and Quintana Roo. El Castillo at Chichen Itza The Yucatán was the home of the Maya civilization before it was conquered by the Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century. Much of the population is part or all of Maya descent, and in many places the Maya language is still spoken, usually in addition to Spanish, the main language of business. Until the mid 20th century, most of the Peninsula's trade with the rest of Mexico was by sea, and the culture, cuisine, and traditions developed different flavors from other parts of Mexico. Starting in the late 20th century the Yucatan has become more integrated into Mexico, especially such areas on the Caribbean coast as Cancun and Chetumal, where many people from other parts of the nation have moved to take advantage of the economic opportunities of development. The Mayan Riviera stretching south from Cancun has seen the most growth related to tourism. Mesoamerican Barrier Reef The MesoAmerican Barrier Reef is the second longest barrier reef in the world, after the Great Barrier Reef off Australia's eastern coast. It stretches from the northern part of Quintana Roo, near Puerto Morelos and just south of Cancun's international airport, to the coast of Honduras. Cities Campeche - moderately sized city with Spanish ruins Cancun - beach, modern tourist resort Chetumal - capital of Quintana Roo, located on the Caribbean coast, close to the Belizean Border with a nice Mayan Cultural museum Izamal - small mostly Maya city with large colonial convent and remains of large Maya pyramids Mahahual - small coastal town, recently a Cruise ship destination called the Costa Maya Mérida - colonial city, the metropolis of the Yucatan Playa del Carmen - was a nice fishermen's town, now has lots of resorts Progreso - port city with beaches and seafood north of Mérida Valladolid - small colonial city Other destinations Mayan Riviera - the stretch of coastline between Cancun and Tulum (which includes Playa del Carmen), it is a quickly-developing resort area that still maintains a relaxed atmosphere in contrast to the city of Cancun Cozumel - an island with beaches and ruins Extensive Maya ruins are scattered all over this region, most of which are easily accessible by bus. Some of the more important include: Becan - large ruin in the lower center of the Peninsula, little restored Calakmul - large ruin in jungle preserve, off the tourist trail Chichen Itza - the largest, most restored, and most visited of Yucatan's Maya ruins Coba - large ruin that has undergone little restoration Cuzamá - home of three beautiful cenotes Lol-Tun caves Dzibilchaltún - moderately sized ruin with only a few buildings restored, worth a look on the road between Mérida and Progresso Kabah - medium-sized ruin south of Uxmal Mayapan - historically important, but less interesting to see than Yucatan's other famous ruins Mahahual - laid back beach area Tulum - the tropical beach backdrop is the main attraction of this picturesque, much-visited small ruin on the shore of the Caribbean Sea Uxmal - one of the most beautiful of all Maya ruins, a large, well-preserved site with fine architecture Ednza - discovered in the 1950s, the well preserbed site it a one drive from Campeche Lol-Tun - an underground cave system, two hours south of Merida Xpujil - a remote inland village, with unique Mayan cultural sites, and jumping-off point for visits to the Reserva de la Biósfera Calakmul Cenotes of the Yucatán - unique underground cave systems with unique snorkeling and scuba diving opportunities Understand The Yucatán peninsula is famous for being the center of the classical Mayan empire, with its stunning ruins at Chichén Itzá and other sites. Many tourists are surprised that, while those cites were abandoned before contact with europeans, Yucatan is still predominantly Mayan. Mayan culture, identity, traditions, and language are very much alive, especially outside of main cities. Referring to locals as Mexican rather than Maya, may risk offending them. Away from beaches and tourist hotels going around in a bathing suit or short shorts is considered improper and rude. Talk Spanish is the main language. English will be understood at the more expensive resorts and tourist locations. Knowing a few phrases of basic Spanish will help away from the main tourist resorts and can often help you find better deals. Yucatecos are generally tolerant of visitors who do not speak Spanish fluently and appreciate the effort. In much of the Yucatan some Maya is spoken. Except in a few small villages, almost everyone will have at least a working knowledge of basic Spanish. Get in By plane Fly in through Cancún, Cozumel, or Mérida. For the best deals, look for charter flight consolidation seats - spare capacity on flights run by package tour operators. By bus From the west through the Chiapas region. Buy tickets for long journeys in advance, particularly at busy times such as weekends and public or religious holidays. Check Ticketbus for times and prices. Only rule out overnight buses for what you would miss en route. By train There is no remaining passenger train service in the Yucatan Peninsula. After the federal government privatized the railways, most passenger services across the entire nation were discontinued. However, Expreso Maya does expensive train tours in the area. Get around By bus Many different class buses are available to/from all the major and many of the minor cities. Mexican first class buses are excellent value and remarkably comfortable - comparable to European train services. Many cheaper services are also available - from second class (little noticeable difference really) to very basic minibus and truck services. Safety seems to decrease with price, however - second class and below may lack seatbelts. Beware of the excessive air conditioning that seems to be a feature on most services - the bus may be many degrees colder than the outside air, and being stuck on a twelve hour journey without adequate clothing can make a journey singularly unpleasant. Travelling second class is not recommended for taller people (5'10" feet or above). As second class busses hold more seats than first class ones do, there is almost no leg room. The major first class bus line is Autobuses del Oriente (ADO). Most of the smaller lines (Mayab, for example), are owned by ADO. By combi Are collective-taxis that offer both inter and intra-city services. Cheaper than a taxi and usually faster than a bus since it makes less stops. By taxi Available for hire even in small towns. For long distances however, like the caves at Lol-tun, be sure to agree on a price before boarding, or you might get ripped off. See Mayan archeological sites. Yucatán is home of several famous Mayan archaeological zones. The best known and most widely visited by tourists is Chichén Itzá, the site of the Kukulcan Pyramid, the Maya Observatory, and the Sacred Cenote. A contrasting cultural style, more ornamental, can be observed at Mayan sites along the Ruta Puuc. The most famous Mayan sites in Quintana Roo Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza are located at Coba and Tulum. Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza Equinox: The period when the Earths sun is directly above the equator, about March 20 & Sept. 23 of each year. Mayans are very dependant on astronomy as reflected in their art and Temples. At Chichen Itza, during sunset on the Equinox, the shadows of the serpent-god Kukulcan, moves down along the pyramid, a very impressive sight! Other structures have Equinox related events that take place on those days also, like Tulum. Ecological Parks: The Yucatan Peninsula is site of several Ecological Parks, like Xcaret, Xel-Há and Garrafón; aimed for the conservation of the flora and fauna of the region, which serve as well as tourist attractions. At these parks you can know more about the Mexican culture, and also enjoy several activities as swimming with dolphins and snorkeling. Itineraries Cenotes of the Yucatán are complexes of sinkholes and caves in the Karst geological landscape of the Yucatan. Some cenotes contain spectacular cave formations, while others are important archeological sites, and several were considered sacred by the Mayans. A few are open to the public for swimming and diving. The states of Yucatán and Quintana Roo have established a "tourist corridor" called La Ruta de los Cenotes along which many of the most spectacular or famous cenotes are situated. Do Reef diving and snorkeling. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef, the second largest coral reef system in the world, lies offshore in the Caribbean east of the Yucatan. It extends all the way to the Bay Islands of Honduras. Eat Yucatecan food has its own culinary traditions developed from the long mix of native Maya and Spanish traditions. While some dishes can be very spicy, many others are not. Common meats are turkey, chicken, pork, and deer. Yucatecan venison is quite good and not "gamey" tasting. Typical dishes include: Pibil dishes, most commonly "pollo pibil", the chicken version, slow cooked in a banana leaf, very tender and tasty. "Cochinita pibil," the young pig version, is a Yucatec classic. Both dishes are seasoned with a red-colored, mild spice called achiote. "Pib" is Yucatec-maya for the cooking technique of wraping in bananna leaves and cooking in a pit. Poc chuc pork marinaded with salt, onion, lime juice, and spices. Huevos Motuleños are eggs on tortillas with black beans and cheese, often with other ingredients such as ham, peas, and tomato sauce. Pollo Motuleño, a chicken dish cooked with orange juice, achiote and plantains. Sopa de lima, tasty lime based vegetable soup with bits of corn tortilla. Panuchos - "sopes" with pork (called cochinita pibil) Seafood is also very important, especially in Campeche. Pulpo (octopus), cazon (shark), camaron (shrimp) and various other tropical fish are very popular. Contrary to the advice of many guides, the food served in all-inclusive resorts may have been prepared in far less safe conditions than that available in local establishments away from the major tourist zones. Poor refrigeration, retaining food beyond safe time limits and poor hygiene have been reported from many resorts - whereas street vendors patronised by locals have little choice but to maintain high standards, as everything is on view and their business is dependent on their reputation, not passing foreign visitors. A good approach for regular restaurants is to note those with a lot of locals and to patronize them. Drink Tap water is not generally advised for drinking in Mexico, particularly for visitors. In many places (particularly backpacker-friendly resorts) water containers can be filled with drinking water for a few pesos - so a reusable container is both an environmentally and financially better option. The water system in Mérida is unusually good for Mexico; for some visitors it is the only Mexican city where they will drink the tap water. Outside of this city the situation is different. In small towns the local water can be very bad, and bottled water is recommended. It would be difficult for anyone visiting this area not to sample the Tequila, which should be used in moderation. For those more adventurous souls, Absinthe is legal in Mexico [[1]] and also, moderation is suggested. Fresh fruit juice is very popular in The Yucatan and freshly squeezed OJ can be found in most markets. Dairy products, including cheese, should be avoided, unless you are positive they have been made with pasteurized milk. Stay safe Strict drug possession policy exists in Mexico. Be very careful even with "greens". Local police are hopelessly corrupt, and like nothing better than to catch unwary tourists with small quantities of marijuana. Threatening long prison terms - whether this is a likely outcome is a moot point - their main aim seems, unsurprisingly, to exact bribes - in some areas a fairly standard 50% of all the traveller's money. Caution is also advised on long bus journeys, particularly across state lines, as police or military checkpoints exist and passengers may be asked for identification or searched. In general, however, these checks seem to be aimed at locals - particularly in the Zapatista homeland in Chiapas. Get out The Yucatán is a good launching point for going to Chiapas, Belize, Cuba and Guatemala.
   
   
   1. "Campeche" Province Historic Fortified Town of Campeche State of Campeche N19 50 47 W90 32 14 Campeche is a typical example of a harbour town from the Spanish colonial period in the New World. The historic centre has kept its outer walls and system of fortifications, designed to defend this Caribbean port against attacks from the sea. Criterion (ii): The harbour town of Campeche is an urbanization model of a Baroque colonial town, with its checkerboard street plan; the defensive walls surrounding its historic centre reflect the influence of the military architecture in the Caribbean. Criterion (iv): The fortifications system of Campeche, an eminent example of the military architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries, is part of an overall defensive system set up by the Spanish to protect the ports on the Caribbean Sea from pirate attacks.
      • Dec 2, 1999 World Heritage Committee Inscribes 48 New Sites on Heritage List
      • Mexico's World Heritage Sites Photographic Exhibition at UN Headquarters
      • View photos from OUR PLACE the World Heritage collection
      1. "Calakmul" Ancient Maya City of Calakmul, Campeche Calakmul Municipality, Campeche Province N18 07 21 W89 47 00 Calakmul, an important Maya site set deep in the tropical forest of the Tierras Bajas of southern Mexico, played a key role in the history of this region for more than twelve centuries. Its imposing structures and its characteristic overall layout are remarkably well preserved and give a vivid picture of life in an ancient Maya capital. Criterion i The many commemorative stelae at Calakmul are outstanding examples of Maya art, which throw much light on the political and spiritual development of the city. Criterion ii With a single site Calakmul displays an exceptionally well preserved series of monuments and open spaces representative of Maya architectural, artistic, and urban development over a period of twelve centuries. Criterion iii The political and spiritual way of life of the Maya cities of the Tierras Bajas region is admirably demonstrated by the impressive remains of Calakmul. Criterion iv Calakmul is an outstanding example of a significant phase in human settlement and the development of architecture.. Antique cité maya de Calakmul et la Réserve de la biosphère Coordinates: 18º 22’ 34.68' et 17º 48’ 46.44' N89º 44’ 53.52' et 89º 19' 31.80' W La zone Núcleo Sur fait partie d’une des plus importantes réserves tropicales de l’Amérique latine ; elle recouvre une partie de la plaine du Yucatan et du Petén et présente un relief topographique peu élevé dans lequel quelques petites côtes atteignent des élévations de 300 à 380 msnm. En ce qui concerne la géologie, la péninsule de Yucatan et celle de Petén sont constituées de massives formations de roches de carbonate recouvertes de plusieurs mètres de salpêtre, et de sols de peu d’épaisseur qui contiennent de la matière organique. Quant à l’hydrologie, en dehors de l’irrigation souterraine il n’existe aucun drainage permanent sur la surface ; la réserve approvisionne une partie du bassin souterrain de la péninsule du Yucatan. En général, il existe une déclivité évidente dans les précipitations qui diminuent petit à petit dans la direction sud – nord ; c’est pourquoi, le long de la frontière avec le Guatemala, la zone présente un climat chaud sub-humide. Par ailleurs, la zone comprend une saison sèche et une saison humide très marquée ; les mois de l’année les plus secs vont de février à mai ; les plus humides, d’août à octobre, coïncident avec l’époque des cyclones. La zone renferme divers types de végétation : des forêts vierges à de hautes et moyennes altitudes, des savanes inondables (ak’alches) et de la végétation aquatique. Cette diversité de l’environnement permet la coexistence de nombreuses variétés de flore et de faune. Ces écosystèmes servent de capteurs et de filtres d’eau évitant l’érosion du sol et rechargeant les réserves aquifères souterraines. Un nombre considérable d’espèces appartenant à la flore et à la faune est sous protection étant donné le danger d’extinction ou leur caractéristique endémique.
         • Jun 26, 2002 World Heritage Committee Inscribes 9 New Sites on the World Heritage List
         • View photos from OUR PLACE the World Heritage collection
           
         • Calakmul - Campeche (spanish only)
           
         • Calakmul (Universidad Autónoma de Campeche)(spanish only)
           
         • Calakmul, Campeche (Universidad de Guadalajara)(spanish only)
           
         Calakmul (also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants) is the name given to site of one of the largest ancient Maya cities ever uncovered. It is located in the 1,800,000 acre Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region, 30 km from the Guatemalan border. Rediscovered from the air by biologist Cyrus L. Lundell of the Mexican Exploitation Chicle Company on December 29, 1931, the find was reported to Sylvanus G. Morley of the Carnegie Institute at Chichen Itza in March 1932. According to Lundell, who named the site, "In Maya, 'ca' means 'two', 'lak' means 'adjacent', and 'mul' signifies any artificial mound or pyramid, so 'Calakmul' is the 'City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids'." Calakmul was a major Maya superpower within the northern Peten region of the Yucatan of southern Mexico. Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign,[1] to be read "Kan".[2] Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Serpent Head Polity. This Serpent Head polity reigned, like Tikal, during most of the Classic Maya period. Calakmul itself is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 people and had governance, at times, to places as far away as 150 kilometers.[3] There are 6,750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site. The pyramid is 55 meters high, making it the tallest of the Maya pyramids. Four tombs have been located within the pyramid. Like many temples or pyramids within Mesoamerica the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the existing temple to reach its current size.[4] The size of the central monumental architecture is approximately two square kilometers and the whole of the site; mostly covered with dense residential structures is about twenty square kilometers. Stelae, Murals and Ceramics Calakmul is one of the most structure rich sites within the Maya region. The site contains 117 stelae the largest total in the region, most are in paired sets representing rulers and their wives.[5] However, due to these carved stelae being produced with soft limestone most of these stelae have been eroded beyond interpretation. Also many elaborate murals were discovered at Calakmul. Unusually these murals do not represent activities of the elite class. Elaborate market scenes are depictions of people preparing or consuming products such as atole or tamales or tobacco as an ointment. Also items being sold were textiles and needles. These murals also have glyphs within them describing the actions occurring.[6] The most prominent figure in these murals is identified as Lady Nine Stone, she appears in many scenes. This brings a world of the Maya marketplace to vibrant life for archaeologists. Another highly beneficial resource to Maya archeological understanding at Calakmul is the ceramic remains. The composition of the ceramic materials identifies the region or more specifically the polity that produced them. Ceramics found at several sites which also are found to have the snake emblem glyph give more evidence to identify ties or control over that site by Calakmul. Calakmul vs. Tikal Much that led to the collapse of classic Maya civilization was warfare and degradation of natural resources. Within the greater Peten region of southern Mexico the two main contributors to this collapse were the superpowers of Calakmul and Tikal. The initial understanding from Maya archaeologists was that Tikal and Calakmul were active competitors of resources in their region. They waged almost constant warfare through to the terminal classic period and could have begun their rivalry in ancestral times. Calakmul rose to be powerful then defeated Tikal; Tikal eventually gained strength and returned to defeat Calakmul. Calakmul allied itself with Yaxchilan, Naranjo, and Caracol surrounding and conquering Tikal. Calakmul remained in power until two of these polities began fighting and then Tikal muscled itself out of control of the northern superpower and in 695 AD conquered Calakmul.[7] Calakmul in turn, utilized surrounding smaller cities of the Tikal sphere of power to defeat their political center at Tikal. It was originally understood that Tikal was the more powerful of the two polities, however, recent archaeological evidence supports that both were influential and each was the seat of their respective dynastic polities. Calakmul is located approximately 60 miles north of Tikal within the Peten, so they are relatively close to each other and inevitably were competing for the same resources. Calakmul acquired and influenced other outposts including many in the Tikal zone such as El Peru and Dos Pilas. Dos Pilas was originally created as an outpost for Tikal who implanted rulers from the royal lineage of the great city. Recently a hurricane ripped through the northern jungles of Guatemala and uncovered ten previously unknown glyph ridden stairs at the site of Dos Pilas, adding to the eight already known and deciphered steps of the hieroglyphic staircase #2, structure L5-49.[8] According to the decipherment the glyphs indicate that the ruler of Dos Pilas was actually brother to the ruler of Tikal and ascended to the throne at age four. The ruler of Dos Pilas, Balaj Chan K’awiil, was a great warrior and was loyal to his brothers’ empire until while in his twenties the enemy of Tikal sacked the young rulers city and he became subordinate to Calakmul. According to the glyphs Balaj Chan K’awiil, acting as a “puppet king”, waged a ten year proxy war against Tikal.[9] What is described in the staircase at this point is a very graphic description of the victory over Tikal by Dos Pilas under the Calakmul authority.[10] A direct quote from the translation of the glyphs is “Blood flowed and skulls of the 13 peoples of the Tikal place were piled up”. Tikal didn’t remain in subordination of Calakmul for very long; shortly after the events described in the staircase at Dos Pilas, Tikal sacked Calakmul and crushed the superpower. Calakmul never fully recovered and after the k’atun ending in 909 AD we have little evidence of Calakmul being a significant center at all.[11] It is clear that warfare was a constant during the classic Maya period and the rivalry between the polities of Calakmul and Tikal were tantamount to catalysts in the great collapse in the greater Peten region in the terminal classic. The terminal classic is identified by a shift of powerful polities within the Peten and the central lowlands to the post classic centers of the Yucatan peninsula, such as Chichen Itza, Coba, and Uxmal. After a long period of inactivity following Morley's 1932 expedition, the city was explored by William Folan between 1984 and 1994, and is now the subject of a large-scale project of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) under Ramón Carrasco. Known rulers of Calakmul This list is not continuous, as the archaeological record is incomplete. Unknown: Yuknoom Ch'een I c.520–546: Tuun K'ab' Hix c.561–572: Sky Witness 572–579: First Axewielder 579–c.611: Scroll Serpent c.619: Yuknoon Chan 622–630: Tajoom Uk'ab' K'ak' 630–636: Yuknoom Head 636–686: Yuknoom Che'en II "Yuknoom the Great" 686–c.695: Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' c.695: Split Earth c.702–c.731: Yuknoom Took' K'awil c.736: Wamaw K'awil c.741: Ruler Y c.751: Ruler Z c.771–c.789: B'olon K'awil c.849: Chan Pet c.909: Aj Took'
         • Calakmul - Patrimonio Cultural de la Humanidad INAH site on Calakmul
         • Calakmul (from The State of Campeche Book)
         • Friends of Calakmul
         • Commercial Stock Photos of Calakmul
         • Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, information from Mexico's National Parks Commission
         • Virtual Walking Tour of Calakmul by David R. Hixson (click on "Calakmul" for photo gallery)
         • Kaan Emblem Principal Glyphs: A, B
      2. "Edzná" is a Maya archaeological site in the north of the Mexican state of Campeche. The most remarkable building at the plaza is the main temple. Built on a platform of 40 meters high, it provides a wide overview of the surroundings. Edzná was already inhabited in 400 BC, and was it abandoned round 1500 AD. In the Late Classic period Edzná was part of the Calakmul polity. The site is open to visitors. Edzná es un sitio arqueológico maya ubicado en el estado mexicano de Campeche, en el Valle de Edzná. Es una de las ciudades mayas más interesantes por los adelantos tecnológicos descubiertos en ella. Debido al tipo de suelo, el valle en el que se encuentra, se inunda en temporada de lluvias y conserva una alta humedad casi todo el año. Para remediar este inconveniente los mayas desarrollaron un avanzado sistema de obras hidráulicas: una red de canales drenaba el valle y el agua era conducida hacia una laguna, que fue transformada en represa mediante muros de contención, mientras que otros canales servían para irrigar los campos. Esto propició un grado óptimo de humedad en la tierra para el cultivo intensivo en tanto que los canales proporcionaban abundante pesca, además que eran usados como vías de comunicación y en algunos casos servían como defensa. Sus plazas tenían un magnífico sistema de desagüe y el agua de la lluvia llegaba a depósitos artificiales llamados chultunes. Edzná contaba con numerosos edificios religiosos, administrativos y habitacionales distribuidos en una superficie de aproximadamente 25 kilómetros cuadrados. Su arquitectura cuenta con influencia del estilo Puuc, Peten y Chenes. Toponimia Su nombre proviene de un antiguo vocablo maya-yucateco, probablemente en alusión a los itzáes. Itzá es un patronímico maya que se hizo extensivo a varios grupos putunes o chontales oriundos del suroeste de Campeche. Si este fuera el caso, Edzná significaría "Casa de los Itzáes". Otra posibilidad es que signifique "Casa del eco", lo que tendría sentido ya que tal fenómeno acústico se presenta entre algunos de los principales edificios del lugar. Un tercer significado podría ser "Casa de los gestos", debido al mascarón de estuco que se piensa que existió en la crestería del edificio más alto de la zona. Historia Las primeras evidencias de ocupación en este asentamiento se remontan al 400 a. C., cuando una comunidad se estableció en un valle en forma de herradura y desarrolló como actividad principal la agricultura, constituyendo una sociedad bien organizada que levantó edificios monumentales, así como un sistema hidráulico que les facilitó el riego y el mantenimiento de los inmuebles. La Gran acrópolis, con el Edificio de los Cinco Pisos al fondo. Estructuras del sitio. A principios de nuestra era se instituyó en Edzná un gobierno centralizado que legitimó su poder político basado en la supuesta relación de los gobernantes con las deidades, convirtiéndose en una capital regional del occidente de la península hacia los años 400 -1000 de nuestra era. Posteriormente se dio la paulatina decadencia del sitio hasta su total desocupación en 1450. Estructuras principales Plaza principal. Amplio espacio cuadrangular donde se asienta el mayor número de construcciones monumentales del sitio, en sus sectores norte y sur existen dos sacbés o calzadas que fueron utilizadas para la circulación interna. Los edificios incluyen la plataforma de los cuchillos y el patio de los embajadores que está delimitado al poniente por 2 edificios, cada uno con cuatro columnas que corresponden a los años 1000-1200 d.C. Nohochná (La Casa Grande). Estructura que posiblemente fue utilizada para ejercer funciones administrativas, aunque también pudo funcionar como una especie de graderío para presenciar eventos celebrados en la Plaza Principal. Esta estructura cuenta con cuatro largas galerías en su parte superior, a las que se tenía acceso mediante vanos formados por gruesas pilastras. Templo del Sur. Comprende 5 cuerpos con molduras voladas y esquinas remetidas que convergen, en su parte posterior, en un ancho talud, sobre el que se levanta el templo que data de entre los años 600 y 900 d.C. Juego de pelota. Está compuesto por dos estructuras paralelas en cuya parte superior se levantan algunas habitaciones que posiblemente fueron utilizadas para colocar en ellas las imágenes de las deidades asociadas al evento y los aditamentos propios del juego y sus participantes. Templo de los mascarones. Estructura que cuenta con dos representaciones del dios solar que tienen características antropomorfas con atributos estéticos propios de la elite, tales como estrabismo, mutilación dental, narigueras, orejeras y grandes tocados zoomorfos. Pequeña acrópolis. Es un basamento que data del 200 a.C., en cuya cima existen 4 edificios que conforman un patio central. Algunos de los elementos más antiguos de Edzná proceden de este lugar: un gran mascarón de estuco del Preclásico Superior, tres estelas del octavo baktún (entre los años 41 y 435 d.C.) y cerámica fechada entre los años 400 y 250 a.C. Gran acrópolis. Es un amplio espacio de planta cuadrangular sobre el cual se levantan varias estructuras monumentales, como el Edificio de los Cinco Pisos, formado por un basamento piramidal escalonado de cinco cuerpos que tienen hacia el exterior numerosas habitaciones, y una construcción en la parte superior que constituye el templo propiamente dicho. La planta del santuario tiene forma de cruz y su techo conserva remates de crestería, alguna vez decorada con figuras moldeadas en estuco. Templo del norte. Consistía en un largo basamento de amplia escalinata cuyo eje principal conducía a una o dos crujías alargadas, mismas que fueron tapadas posteriormente, para añadírseles paneles remetidos, algunos decorados con tamborcillos y anchos taludes. El santuario que lo coronaba tuvo al menos cuatro modificaciones. Frente a este templo se localiza una plataforma en forma de C correspondiente a la ocupación más tardía de Edzná: 1200-1400 d.C. Patio puuc. Está delimitado por varias construcciones recubiertas con sillares cuadrangulares, rectangulares y cilíndricos muy bien labrados. En el edificio norte también se aprecian sillares con triángulos y círculos en relieve que conforman grandes marcos. De la construcción con taludes curvos proviene una escultura en forma de marco cuadrangular, con representaciones de Chaac y glifos, entre los que se observan bandas celestes, el día Imix y el mes Yax. Justo a la entrada del patio principal se localiza el Temazcal, nombre de origen náhuatl cuya traducción al Maya yucateco es chokó sin tumbilhá, que se refiere a un baño de vapor, cuyo acceso estaba restringido por su relevancia religiosa. La vieja hechicera. Es otra de las principales estructuras de Edzná, se localiza a 800 m al noroeste del Edificio de los Cinco Pisos. En su lado oriental cuenta con una escalinata, los cuerpos del basamento presentan esquinas redondeadas y remetidas, y en la parte superior de la estructura hay un pequeño santuario.
      3. "Los Petenes" - "Ría Celestún" tentativelist State, Province or Region: Northwest coast of the Yucatan; States of Campeche and Yucatan Coordinates: N19 49 38 - 21 00 57 W90 13 32 - 90 51 19 The ecoregion of "Los Petenes-Ría Celestún" forms a coastal corridor of wetlands in excellent state of preservation. This system forms a unique biogeographical area in Mexico, of great ecological value for its large faunistic and floristic diversity. This region is a mosaic of mudflats, known locally as blanquizales, mixed with mangroves, cattails, reeds, low deciduous forest, low flooded forest, petenes of mangrove and rainforest, medium sub perennial rainforest and coastal dune scrub. This diversity of ecosystems maintains a faunistic diversity representative of the region, among which its avifauna is specially notice worthy, as it is represented by 304 species of birds among residents and migrants, coastal and marsh birds, such as herons (Ardeidae), ducks (Anatidae), gulls (Laridae) and a wealth of migratory songbird species (Passerines) and shorebirds that depart from the neighboring countries to the north of the continent, namely the United States and Canada, during their winter migratory flights. The flora is represented by species of Central American and Caribbean affinity. The geologic substrate on which these wetlands are situated corresponds to a karstic limestone, formed during Tertiary and Quaternary epochs, and which represents the youngest portion of the Yucatan Platform on the northern half of the Peninsula. Cenotes or dolines and fresh water spring form on this substrate. The climate is tropical sub humid, with summer rains, which total near to 800 mm of rainfall; the average temperature is of the order of 26°C. It should be pointed out that the estuaries of Ría Celestún are constituted by a very shallow hyper saline estuary that promotes water evaporation, and favors the presence of Brine Shrimp (Artemia salina) and Pink Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), which feed upon these shrimp, in what represents their resting, feeding and breeding area, hosting a population estimated at close to 23,000 individuals. These estuaries have been formed by the accumulation and deposition of sand deposited by oceanic currents. In the area of Los Petenes BR their peculiar plant communities known as petenes, islands of vegetation immersed in a matrix of shallow, muddy, brackish marshes, are particularly notice worthy. The surrounding fresh water springs, which nourish them, give origin to these islands that present the aspect of a ring-shaped rainforest. These plant communities result of special interest as they are only found in the Yucatan Peninsula, Florida and Cuba. The petenes are dependant on the amount of fresh water, the type of soil and the micro topography, giving rise to plant associations such as mangroves, and including samples of low flooded rainforest and tall rainforest. The type of soil plays a very important role in the distribution of the vegetation in the ecoregion of the Petenes-Ria Celestun, as the calcareous rock allows that filtrations of fresh water, originating in water-bearing formations, to surface inside the salt marsh, giving rise occasionally to cenotes, and promoting the presence of species of fresh-water hydrophytes interspersed in the salty water. This fact promotes the development of vegetation that constitutes a mosaic of different plant associations along the land-sea gradient. (ix): The ecoregion of Los Petenes-Ria Celestun offers conditions for the survival of a diversity of species of plants and animals throughout the year. During the dry season (from March to May) an endangered species, the Jabiru Stork (Jabiru mycteria) and other resident species are breeding, and this period extends until the arrival of the rains. It is an area of passage for migratory birds, some of which remain in the area. During the rainy season (from June to October), Flamingoe are breeding; during the season of "nortes" (strong winds blowing from the north) herons and cormorants breed, and once again, one observes the passage of migratory birds and the permanence of some of them. More than 300 species of birds have been seen in the area: cardinals, orioles, motmots, woodpeckers, hummingbirds, weaver-birds (Icteridae), kingfishers, cormorants, frigate birds, herons, storks, ibices, osprey, hawks, vultures, owls, pelicans, shorebirds, gulls, among others, such as the Pink Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber ruber). This species uses the area as a nesting, resting, feeding and breeding site, with a population of 23, 000 individuals, from the total of 28, 000 estimated for the Yucatan Peninsula, and which, according to data provided by Wetlands International (2002), represents more than 75% of the biogeographical population for this species. Along this wetlands corridor, in low depth areas, one finds manati (Trichechus manatus manatus), as this ecosystem provides feeding and protection areas for the species. The manati contributes to the ecosystem by recycling nutrients, and positively influences the fertility and productivity of the region by promoting the development of natural populations of plants and animals, among them some of economic interest for humans. The area offers a uniquely scenic landscape by combining flora and fauna representative of the dry tropics with impressive islands of tropical rainforest, developing around a water spring or a cenote of fresh water immersed in a tropical savanna flooded with brackish water, where one may detect exotic species of palm trees, cacti, bromeliads and orchids, cataloged among the most beautiful of the continent. (x): The ecosystem of petenes is considered as unique at the national level and throughout the world, as it is only located in the Peninsula of Florida in the United States and in Cuba. The World-Wide Fund for Nature considers it as the Ecoregion of "Petenes de Mangle" (Petenes mangroves NT1428), as it contains populations of four of the mangrove species present on the American Continent: Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. This last species has the highest population reported for the State of Campeche and possibly for all of the Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican Caribbean. In these sub-tidal marine beds one finds the most extensive and vigorous area of sea grasses registered for the Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican Caribbean, which together with the mangroves, represent protection, feeding, breeding and rearing sites for the aquatic fauna of the region. Among the more than 61 species of fish registered, species of commercial value stand out, such as the Hogfish or boquinete in Spanish (Lachnolaimus maximus), the Spanish mackerel or sierra (Scomberomorus maculatus) and the Common snook or robalo (Centropomus undecimalis). Furthermore, the site contains karstic systems and other underground hydrological systems, key to the ecological characterization of the area, as their conformation propitiates the development of the petenes. Celestun is considered the fourth largest duck wintering area in the region of the Gulf of Mexico. During winter it is possible to see up to 13 species of migratory ducks. The flamingo is one of its more graceful and spectacular birds, but it also depends for its survival on a fragile ecosystem - the hyper saline lagoons. It prefers the more protected areas of the rías (estuaries) or coastal lagoons with high salinity, shallow waters and muddy soils, where the Brine Shrimp (Artemia salina) reproduce. This crustacean constitutes their main food-source and gives their feathers its characteristic pink coloration. Four species of turtles nest on local beaches: the Atlantic Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia m. mydas), the Atlantic Loggerhead (Caretta c. caretta), the Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and the Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea). The two species of crocodile found in Mexico are also present in this ecoregion: the American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) and Morelet´s Crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii). Also, there are 45 species endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula, such as the Yucatan Black-throated Bobwhite (Colinus nigrogularis), the Mexican Sheartail (Doricha eliza), and the Yucatan Wren (Campylorhynchus yucatanicus). Last but not least, the Horse-shoe crab or cacerolita (Limulus polyphemus), a marine arthropod considered a living fossil, is distributed from the coasts of the Yucatan Peninsula to Isla del Carmen, in the State of Campeche; it uses the sandy beaches and parts of the estuary next to the rías for breeding purposes. Satements of authenticity and/or integrity Los Petenes and Ria Celestun were decreed in 1999 and 2000 respectively, as Protected Natural Areas classified as of Biosphere Reserves. Applicable guidelines and regulations in terms of environmental and conservation matters are those prescribed by the General Law for Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (LEGEEPA). The Official Mexican Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001, whose purpose is to identify the species or populations of wild flora and fauna at risk in the Mexican Republic, and also to establish the criteria for inclusion or change in status for the species or populations by means of evaluation methods of their risk of extinction, is applied in these protected areas. Likewise, both of these reserves have a Conservation and Management Plan published in the Official Diary of the Federation; for the Biosphere Reserve of Celestun in 2002 and under revision for the Biosphere Reserve of Los Petenes, in which the criteria and strategies to assure the conservation de the coastal ecosystems of the northwestern portion of the Yucatan Peninsula are considered. Los Petenes and Ría Celestun have been listed as Ramsar sites since 2004, reason by which they are considered wetlands of international importance. Ria Celestun is also a MAB Biosphere Reserve into the MAB World Network. Comparison with other similar properties Coastal wetlands and their adjacent marine zones are considered one of the world's most productive environments, providing social and economic benefits of importance to people without lessening their importance as habitat for many species. These wetlands and coastal zones are important for their contribution to maintain the ecological processes and life support systems for human beings. Regrettably, they are also among the most threatened habitats in the world. There are numerous properties on the World Heritage List with wetlands, and some of them show some similarities with the ecoregion of "Los Petenes-Ria Celestun", such as the following: Everglades National Park, USA; it is an area of exceptional importance for conservation, as it includes a mangrove ecosystem, one of the most significant nesting areas of tropical birds, as well as providing habitat to species listed under some category of risk, including the manatee (Trichechus manatus). It is also important for its affluents of fresh water. Doñana National Park, Spain: for having little disturbed marshes, and containing a long stretch of pristine coast and protecting one of the few remaining dune systems. It is a feeding and nesting area for flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber). Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary, Senegal; for supporting large waterbird colonies, harboring thousands of flamingo that reach the sanctuary, and for being habitat of threatened species such as the African Manatee. Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, Honduras; for including species considered in different categories of risk, such as the manatee (Trichechus manatus), crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), and sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata, Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas, and Dermochelys coriacea). Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, Mexico; for being situated on top of a calcareous, partially emerged plain; having dwarf mangroves, peripheral mangroves, fresh and brackish water marshes, and an extensive set of cenotes; for being an area that includes the habitat of several endemic species. Darien and Los Katios National Parks, Panama/Colombia; for presenting flooded plains, sandy beaches, rocky coasts, mangroves and swamps; there is also a large diversity of birds. Arabian Oryx Sanctuary, Oman; for presenting beaches and coastal lagoons that provide habitat to colonies of resident and migratory birds, including gulls, terns, flamingos, herons and several species of ducks, all of which use the lagoon during winter; for presenting fresh and brackish water springs forming oasis of vegetation, which are used by a variety of birds, mammals and fish.
   2. "Yucatán"
      1. "Chichen-Itza" Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen-Itza Etat de Yucatan, Municipalité de "Tinum" N20 40 W88 36 This sacred site was one of the greatest Mayan centres of the Yucatán peninsula. Throughout its nearly 1,000-year history, different peoples have left their mark on the city. The Maya and Toltec vision of the world and the universe is revealed in their stone monuments and artistic works. The fusion of Mayan construction techniques with new elements from central Mexico make Chichen-Itza one of the most important examples of the Mayan-Toltec civilization in Yucatán. Several buildings have survived, such as the Warriors’ Temple, El Castillo and the circular observatory known as El Caracol.
      2. "Uxmal" Pre-Hispanic Town of Uxmal Etat de Yucatan, municipalites Muna et Santa Elena N20 21 42 W89 46 13 The Mayan town of Uxmal, in Yucatán, was founded c. A.D. 700 and had some 25,000 inhabitants. The layout of the buildings, which date from between 700 and 1000, reveals a knowledge of astronomy. The Pyramid of the Soothsayer, as the Spaniards called it, dominates the ceremonial centre, which has well-designed buildings decorated with a profusion of symbolic motifs and sculptures depicting Chaac, the god of rain. The ceremonial sites of Uxmal, Kabah, Labna and Sayil are considered the high points of Mayan art and architecture. The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i), (ii) and (iii) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value. The ruins of the ceremonial structures at Uxmal represent the pinnacle of late Mayan art and architecture in their design, layout and ornamentation, and the complex of Uxmal and its three related towns of "Kabáh" , "Labná" and "Sayil" admirably demonstrate the social and economic structure of late Mayan society.
         • NHK World Heritage 100 Series [Windows Media required]
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         • Uxmal (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia - INAH)(spanish only)
           
         • Architecture, Restoration and Imaging of Maya Cities
           
      3. Historical city of "Izamal" (Izamal, Mayan continuity in an Historical City) Coordinates: N20 51 - 21 00 W88 51 - 89 09 Izamal is known as the "Hill City" because it has in its urban zone, several archaeological vestiges located on the hill sides. The extension of the remains of pre Hispanic constructions as estimated could occupy an area of 10 kilometers square. Today city of Izamal was a remarkable site of the ancient Mayan civilization. It was probably the largest large city of plains of the north of Yucatan. The investigators have found and catalogued around 80 pre Hispanic structures within the layout of the city. One of the most important pyramids is the Kinich Kak Moo, that is the third pre-Hispanic structure of greater volume in Mexico and at least two stone roads are known, called sacbeóob (ways) that communicated it with other important settlements. The dimension of its buildings and the network of roads, constructed between 600 and 800 A.C., are evidence of the political and economic power that Izamal exerted on a vast territory, larger than five thousand kilometers square. Here a particular construction technique was developed, mainly by using megalithic carved blocks, with defined architectonical characteristics like rounded corners, projected moldings and superstructures done with perishable materials. Of the hegemony of Izamal on an ample region is evidenced by the roads that joined the city with dependent populations - like Kantunil, 18 kilometers to the south, and Aké, 29 kilometers to the west and by the control upon commerce and the production of salt through Xcambó, a port located at the Northern coast of the peninsula. Five pre-Columbian structures are still visible in Izamal (and from a considerable distance in all directions).The first one is a pyramid dedicated to a solar deity, Kinich Kak Moo, which means macaw of fire, solar face, where worship is rendered to this deity as a source of life, by offering flowers, fruits, animals and aromatic substances. This building is the highest of Yucatan and, by its volume, the third most important of the country. It reaches 35 meters of height. In the base its walls measure 195 meters from east to west and 173 meters from north to south. Upon this base a pyramid of 10 levels exists. Towards the Southeast there is the so called pyramid Itzamatul and, located at the south flank of what used to be an enormous square, there is a structure denominated Ppap Hol Chak, partially destroyed in the 16th century when the Franciscan monastery was constructed upon it. The southwestern side of the central square is limited by another well-known pyramid Hun Pik Tok, and in the west the public space is closed with the temple of Kabul, where a great stucco large mask of Itzamná god existed, which was drawn in 1840 by Federick Catherwood and published by John Lloyd Stephens. Other residential constructions that are samples of Izamal's historical development are the Xtul, the Habuc and the Chaltun Has. These great knolls are witnesses of a process of superposition of buildings that lasted several centuries and that originally supported a series of temples and palaces. In order to determine the religious social, political and administrative importance of pre-Hispanic Izamal, it is convenient to mention that after more than one decade of research works, 163 archaeological structures have been mapped within the urban area of the contemporary city and also thousands of residential units in a series of pre Hispanic communities located in the surroundings have been registered. Also, in the whole region that historically was called Ah Kin Chel, hundreds of sites have been detected that shared the same architectonic characteristics of Izamal. At the present time, there are still little more than 20 structures left that all together make of Izamal, archaeologically spoken a first rank site for the country. After the conquest of Yucatan in the 16th century, the Spaniards demanded the foundation and construction of a city, which began upon the existing Mayan city. Due to the presence of two enormous structures, it was decided to build a small Christian temple on the greater pyramid and a great Franciscan convent upon the Acropolis. This convent received the name of San Antonio de Padua. The construction of the convent began in 1553 by fray Diego de Landa. Given the dimensions of the pyramid, the land of the set of the church and the caretaker's office of the convent, chapel and vestibule, occupy 14 thousand 678 square meters. The church is found in the center with its facade to the west. The temple and caretaker's office were finished in 1554. The architect of this last part was fray Juan de Mérida. The work of the convent concluded in 1561, being guardian fray Francisco de la Torre. The church has a barrel vault and tracery, some windows of Moorish arcs and flying buttresses in the apse that give it an excellent aspect. It conserves the title of la Purísima Concepción (the Purest Conception). It is a single ship of 51,90 meters in length. In the central part the two lateral doors communicate to the left with the convent and the right with a common courtyard and the chapel of the Third Order. To the north of the church the convent was built, to the east the orchard and the cemetery with his chapel; in the lower part are located, to the south, the temple of the Third Order and, to the west, the great vestibule, whose arcade was finished in 1618. And so was built what would be the greatest religious center of the Mayan converted to the Catholicism in the Yucatan Peninsula; like in pre-Hispanic time when worship was rendered to Itzamná, Izamal became the destiny of multiple peregrinations that - still today, arrive daily to celebrate patron saints in the diverse chapels of the site. Also, Izamal has been named "City of the Three Cultures", in reference to the architectonic and cultural fusion of the pre-Columbian, colonial and modern societies in the architectural styles found in its houses and public spaces that have given identity to its inhabitants. Izamal has been a great center of religious peregrination from immemorial times. For the Mayans of today, Izamal continues being the destiny of their pilgrimages, since the image of the Immaculate Conception of Maria, gained its devotion. The image that presides over the greater altarpiece of the temple of the convent - Our Lady of Izamal - was taken to Izamal from Guatemala by orders of Fray Diego de Landa (the well-known and controversial bishop from Yucatan, author of the "Relation of the things of Yucatan" who lived in Izamal). In Izamal the Mayan language is spoken, at least, as much as Spanish. As for the language, the rites, the architecture, in this community of sober, white and yellow houses, ancestral customs remain: the crossbred food, the way of dressing, the music... daily routine expressions are the synthesis of a distant past in the time, but as near as the Mayan monuments that rise in the center of the town, between houses of the colonial time. Justification for Outstanding Universal Value Justification of Outstanding Universal Value Criteria (iii) Izamal can be considered as one of the oldest cities of the Mayans, populated by Itzáes groups coming from the east and whose denomination Izamal is taken from the name of the God Itzamná or Itzamatul. Izamal grew as an urban nucleus, and strengthened religiously as well as politically, giving rise to a town considered as a state by the indigenous of the peninsula, likewise a center of peregrination in the early classic period of Middle America. The similarity between the qualities of Itzamná and those of the god of the conquerors, allowed a symbiosis to occur between the indigenous beliefs and the catholic religion, and smoothed the way to what some describe as a "spiritual conquest". Erected catholic sanctuaries on the Mayan temples were the altars where the natives continued expressing their mysticism and religiosity. Soon, the native ones submitted to the Hispanic God that, like their old deity Itzam Na, was the possessor of extraordinary powers. Izamal has seen pass centuries of veneration to its gods and saints and, certainly, its relevance as religious center is originated in the splendor of the prodigious Mayan civilization. For that reason, it is an exceptional testimony of the social and religious evolution of a culture whose most excelling characteristics remain to the present time. Criteria (iv) The city of Izamal is a settlement with more than two thousand years of antiquity. In the same site Mayan, colonial and buildings of independent Mexico converge, which confers to the city a particular identity. Izamal was founded by Zamná, priest of the god Itzamná, in the Late Pre-classic period (750 to 200 A.C.). The greater incidence in the constructive activity includes the Proto-classic (200 B.C. to 200 a.c.), the Early Classic (200 to 600 A.C.) And Late Classic (600 to 800 A.C.) periods. It was partially abandoned from the rising of the state of Chichen Itzá during the Final Classic period (800 to 1000 A.C.) until the end of the pre-Hispanic time, when Izamal was considered as one of the main sites of peregrination in the region. Izamal is one of the most important archaeological sites of the north of the Yucatan Peninsula. Numerous old references talk about the sacred character and the cult to which the city was dedicated, which could have been a stimulus to undertake those works. Although the colonial settling down destroyed good part of the pre-Hispanic buildings, some in the center of the present population are still conserved and a high number of platforms in the surroundings. In addition to its pre-Hispanic monuments, among them the hugest of the Yucatan, Izamal conserves numerous colonial buildings. It is common that an itinerary through a colonial street, of a monumental Mayan pyramid to some large house of 18th century, is made in few minutes. One of the most beautiful convents constructed by the Franciscan order in Yucatan, that took advantage of the base of the Kinich Kak MOO, was the one of San Antonio de Padua. The chapel of the Remedios (Remedies), in the district of the same name, is another colonial construction and second in size after the convent of San Antonio de Padua. Its altarpiece, of gothic style, was made originally in 1898 in the temple of the convent, and was replaced by one constructed in 1949. To the north of the convent is the square of "Zamna", in honor to the pre-Hispanic spiritual guide who founded the city. This square has pre-Hispanic and colonial details in its esplanade and is surrounded by vestibules with depressed arcs, colonial those of the western flank, and 19th century those of the east. In the northeast angle there are two horseshoe arcs forming the vestibule of the chapel of the Divino Maestro (Divine Teacher), construction of 17th century at the base of the pyramid of Kabul. In the Southeastern angle of the square a monumental depressed arc points out on 31s street, abutment of the convent of 17th century. To the south of the convent the little square "2nd of April" is located with the monument to fray Diego de Landa, and at its southern flank, a large house on the base of a Mayan pyramid. Other constructions of the colonial period are the present terminal of buses, the kindergarten and the municipal market. The houses of the historical center delimited by streets 22 to 40 in their east - west axis and from 25 to the 33 in the north-south axis are constructions of 17th to 20th centuries. The houses and constructions, as from 16th century, were made of stones of the pre-Hispanic buildings. The city does not have an orthodox grid plan, because it followed the pre-Hispanic plan, respecting the former existing opened spaces now being the actual squares. The civil and religious constructions from the 16th to the 20th centuries are numerous and they are in good state of conservation. Being the best conserved in the region, Izamal is called "the most colonial of the Yucatan cities". The urban outline and the architecture of Izamal represent a fusion of indigenous and Spanish traditions, which confers it exceptional importance and quality to be conserved as legacy of world-wide value: The pre-Hispanic monument system in downtown is an outstanding symbol of the urban image and gives account of the past importance of the settlement; The colonial historical monuments, carefully preserved the civil and religious architecture; The infrastructure of independent Mexico and of modern times complements the history book of the Peninsula that is Izamal through its architecture. Criteria (vi) Together whit its singular architecture, where great pre-Hispanic monuments stand out and the splendor of its religious buildings, in Izamal diverse cultural expressions survive that go beyond samples of folklore and that are part of the daily life of the inhabitants of Izamal. The houses constructed from the Colony are inhabited by the villagers or give space to diverse commercial uses. The color and the uniformity of the civil architecture of Izamal are more than only scenographic elements, but rather are part of the daily life of its inhabitants. In the main seat the buggies thrown by horses are lined up and are part of public transport for visitors and inhabitants. The creativity and laboriousness of the Mayan people find a magnificent expression in varied artisan pieces and the gastronomy that incorporates centuries of rituals and knowledge. In Izamal the Mayan language is spoken because the inheritors of this culture lived in it. The inhabitants of Izamal are direct descendants of the original settlers of these lands, they speak, dress, eat and live attached to their celebrations and traditions. Izamal is representative example of the symbiosis of religious beliefs of different civilizations. For more than two thousand years of indigenous peregrination and 500 of Christian peregrination, Izamal has been an excellent center of veneration. To the temples in which the God Itzamna was adored, convents and Christian chapels were built on. The present centers of catholic peregrination are represented fundamentally by the convent of San Antonio de Padua, the chapel of Nuestra Señora María Santísima (our Holly Lady María), the chapel of the Remedies and the Chapel of Carmen. Izamal is testimony of the coexistence and evolution of two civilizations: the native and the Spanish. As a matter of fact, Izamal keeps singular expressions from its crossbreeding. Independently of its religious importance, or the value of its monuments, Izamal is an island of time that contains a special form of lifestyle and way of contemplating life. If its conservation is not assured or promoted, this important cultural good could disappear. Satements of authenticity and/or integrity The area propose to be declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO, occupies an area of approximately four kilometers square, and mainly includes the historical center of the city and pre-Hispanic monuments. This area fulfils at least the following criteria of authenticity and/or integrity: Authenticity Form and design: The constructive style of the colonial city, its squares and the great pre Hispanic Mayan structures located in the urban center, grant to Izamal a singular architectonic personality. Special is the grandness of the convent of San Antonio de Padua - the mayor one of the Peninsula -, the vestibule with his 75 arcs and the church of neo gothic style from the end of the XIX Century housing the sculpture of the virgin of Izamal. Use and function: For more than two thousand years Izamal was a Mayan ceremonial center. The construction of its monuments is older than those of Chichén Itzá and Uxmal. After the conquest and until now it has become an important religious pole of catholic peregrination. Traditions: From its foundation, in pre-Columbian times, to the present, Izamal is bound to a strong religious tradition. At the moment the Franciscan convent and the devotion to Immaculate Maria, are distinctive of the city. Another one of the living traditions that make of Izamal a magical town is its gastronomy. Its kitchen has a crossbred touch of the Yucatan area, prepared with indigenous ingredients and flavors. The settlers of Izamal know to make dreams become real through their hands: legacies transmitted from fathers to sons for generations such as the weaving of hammocks with henequen fiber, the manufacturing of furniture of wood and divers objects of ceramics with pre Hispanic and colonial characteristics. A reminiscence of the colonial time, but of generalized daily use, are the buggies, known by the name of Victories, vehicle of animal traction , open box and pliable sunshade. In the streets of Izamal it is common to find its inhabitants dressed with the typical regional dress: women with the typical hipil and men with white clothes and additionally a hat and rope-soled sandals or shoes. Music, dance, food, language, dress and the pure catholic faith of its inhabitants, make of Izamal a microcosm protected by aged and beautiful buildings that are testimonials of its historical and cultural transformation. Location and surroundings: the city of Izamal is located in the center of the Peninsula, 70 kilometers from Mérida, the State Capital of Yucatan. It is readily accessible by highway and in its surroundings the landscape of henequen plantations, the empty buildings of ex haciendas are common and villages with the traditional Mayan houses are common landscape elements. Language: In addition to the Spanish language, the Mayan language, the inherited native language of the pre-Hispanic time, is of generalized use. Izamal represents a cultural and religious space that in spite of its evolution has conserved its crossbred characteristics of its people and it is an exceptional cultural site, where history prevails in each daily fact. Izamal is an historical center whose perimeter coincides with the one of two cities, two cultures and two civilizations. Its design matches with the one of its Mayan past, always present in pre-Hispanic monuments. Its colonial inheritance is clear in yellow and austere large houses; in the vestibule, convent and church, constructed in the style of 16th century fortress-like churches, with its high walls, heavy and crenellated. The city of Izamal is in good state of conservation; nevertheless, increasing threats exist that threaten the integrity of the culture and infrastructure of the place. Outstanding are the negligence of the pre Hispanic structures as well as the colonial ones, the indifference or lack of conscience of the inhabitants related to the value of their tangible and intangible cultural patrimony, the continuous migration of the villagers towards other parts of the Mexican Republic and abroad, and the insufficiency of a regulation that assures the preservation the built cultural patrimony. Seated on the palaces that were built by the prodigious Mayans, Izamal of today is a syncretism expression of cultures that, despite the ups and downs of modernity, conserves cultural identity and the architectonic expressions of the diverse stages of its history. Izamal, microcosm, island of identity, legendary collection of buildings and monuments, yellow of calm, cordiality that walks around in buggies through tight stones paved streets, pilgrimages and fireworks breaking the calmness of the afternoons, music and the color embroidered daily clothes, laborious hands since centuries, overflowing faith in churches and chapels, enormous, monumental convent, always at the center of the glances, a limpid life that passes by in the river of history. The intention of this proposal is to contribute to preserve the cultural legacy of the civilizations that have converged in a same place: Izamal. Comparison with other similar properties Valladolid city is located in the same Mexican state of Yucatan, this city is a clear example of what may happen to a property if it is not looked after and preserved on time. It was founded in March 24th 1545 on the Mayan settlement known as Zaci, the city of Valladolid has archaeological traces of the pre classical medium or formative medium period. Just like Izamal, in this location traditions and Mayan customs persist, just as Colony buildings. Nevertheless, the lack of legal codes in terms of urban development and the lack of a politics of preservation of the native cultural expressions have permitted the serious deterioration of its architecture and the valuable cultural expressions loss that have reduced identity to the place. The convent of San Antonio de Padua, in Izamal, shows unique characteristics. It is considered the hugest of whole Latin America. By its religious relevance and architectonic singularity, this convent is comparable to the basilica of Guadalupe of the City of Mexico. By its pure religiosity and its architecture, Izamal shares similarities with Xochimilco, declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO; who's Historical Center in its ancestral religiosity demonstrates to be a strong bastion of identity. The Franciscan Convent of San Bernardino de Siena, monument of the XVI Century, artistic patrimony, and its chapels in the 17 districts, as well as the temples of the 14 neighboring towns of the demarcation, are spaces of coincidence with the religious infrastructure of Izamal. In Izamal as well as in Xochimilco the perennial religious devotion has fortified the communitarian values and has contributed to the permanence of diverse cultural expressions that conforms its identity, resisting the attacks of modernity. Finally it is important to emphasize the great affinity that exists between Izamal and Cholula. Both properties are localities inhabited since the pre-Hispanic age, they always have been large ceremonial and religious centres and, still today, its main axis is the sacred-ritual. An extensive calendar of religious festivities and the continuance of architectural traces of their diverse historic ages are coincidences that show their cultural and historic value. Mystic, ceremonial, sacred from the night of the times, Izamal has, without reducing its religiosity, passed through the encounter of two cultures and continues being the center of peregrination of the Mayans of today as well as thousands of faithful catholic who share an immemorial faith, originated in the certainty of the extraordinary power of its founder, Zamná. This intrinsic value as religious center remains to the present time.
      4. "Oxkintok" is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site on the Yucatán Peninsula, located at the northern tip of the Puuc hills - a few kilometers to the east of the modern town of "Maxcanú" , Yucatán, Mexico. In the Maya language, the name "Oxkintok" can be parsed as "Ox" (three) and "Kin" (day/sun), but there are multiple possibilities for "Tok" (if the final letter is a soft /K/ then it may mean "snatch away / defend, lean, fall, or burn", but if the final letter is truly a glottalized /K’/ then it may mean "puncture, let blood, or chert / flint / hard stone"). Different translations, based upon the various meanings of "Tok" are found in the literature. Chronology The site has provided evidence of habitation from the Late Preclassic through the Late Postclassic periods of Maya prehistory. However, Oxkintok became a major center between the Early Classic and Terminal Classic periods (including what Carmen Varela terms the "Middle Classic"). It is well known as possessing a very early Long Count date in AD 475 (on the lintel of Structure 6 in the "Canul" group). The latest dated monument at the site records a date in AD 859. Architecture The style of architecture is an interesting mix of Early, Late and Terminal Classic techniques. Some of the structures exhibit slab-vaulted masonry (indicative of the Early Classic and early Late Classic periods), while many quadrangles contain structures with veneer masonry (introduced at the end of the Late Classic and elaborated during the Terminal Classic period). The site is used as an example of the transition from traditional Classic Period architecture to Puuc Veneer masonry by George F. Andrews. Oxkintok also exhibits a type of "talud-tablero" architecture, most commonly associated with central Mexican sites such as Teotihuacan, Monte Albán and Cholula (but can also be found among certain Maya sites, such as Tikal, Kaminaljuyu and neighboring Chunchucmil, during the Middle Classic). The most popular structure at the site is the tzat tun tzat (sometimes written Satunsat, but most commonly called "The Labyrinth"). This relatively small structure has a labyrinth of vaulted tunnels within it. Sculpture Carved Column from Oxkintok, Yucatán As already mentioned, Oxkintok is well known for its early Long Count date. However, it is also known for its anthropomorphic columns. These Late to Terminal Classic columns were sculpted to represent elites, warriors and deities – a potential precursor to the “warrior columns” of Chichen Itza and Mayapan. Notes on some of these columns were included in the pioneering work of Tatiana Proskouriakoff (see references, below). History of research In 1842, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood explored Oxkintok, including The Labyrinth. In the early 20th century, under the Carnegie project, Edwin Shook spent a short time at the site. Since the 1980s a long-term project directed by Miguel Rivera Dorado (of Madrid, Spain) has produced a vast amount of data on Oxkintok. Most recently, Mexico's INAH has invested in excavations and reconstructions at the site (under the direction of Ricardo Velasquez). Modern site and tourism The site of Oxkintok is a protected “zona”, open to visitors with an admission fee. It is accessible from the nearby town of Maxcanú, approximately 62 km (38.5mi) south of Mérida on Federal Highway 180. The site lacks facilities, but is attended by guides. Nearby attractions include the Calcehtok caves
      5. "Mayapan" (Màayapáan in Modern Maya), (in Spanish Mayapán) is a Pre-Columbian Maya site a couple of kilometers south of the town of "Telchaquillo" in the state of Yucatán, Mexico, approximately 40 km south-east of "Mérida" and 100 km west of "Chichen-Itza". Mayapan was the political and cultural capital of the Maya in the Yucatan Peninsula during the Late Post-Classic period from the 1220s until the 1440s. Mayapan is today a large archaeological site measuring approximately 4 square kilometers in area and containing over 4000 structures. The bulk of the site is surrounded by a substantial defensive stone wall pierced by several gates. The wall is about 9 km long and is roughly ovate in plan view. The ceremonial center of the site is located at the focus of the wide, western end. The ceremonial center is occupied by a tightly packed cluster of pyramid-temples and colonnades. The main temple at Mayapan is called the Temple of Kukulcan. It is located at the rim of a cenote, which has caves radiating from it. In form, the Temple of Kukulcan (structure Q-162 on the site map) is a radial step pyramid that is generically similar to the Temple of Kukulcan at the site of Chichen Itza. There are a number of other major temples in the ceremonial center including several round ones, which are unusual for the Maya area. The extensive residential zones of the site are composed of dwellings and ancillary domestic structures. The houses are often arranged in small patio groups surrounding small courtyards. There are many cenotes, perhaps as many as 40, in the residential areas of the site, and settlement tends to concentrate near them. The ethnohistorical sources - such as Diego de Landa's Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan, compiled from native sources in the 16th century - tell us the site was founded by Kukulcan (the Maya name of Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec king, culture hero, and demigod) after the fall of Chichen Itza. He convened the lords of the region, who agreed to found a new capital at Mayapan. The lords then divided the towns of Yucatán among them, and chose the chief of the Cocom family as their leader. The ethnohistorical sources recount multiple different histories of the rise and fall of Mayapan. These histories are often confusing, chronologically implausible, and difficult to reconcile. For example, some sources say that the Maya revolted in 1221 against the Maya-Toltec lords of Chichen Itza. After a short civil war the lords of various powerful cities and families met to restore a central government to Yucatán. A decision was made to build a new capital city near the town of Telchaquillo, hometown of Hunac Ceel, the general who defeated the rulers of Chichen Itza. The new city was built within a defensive wall and named "Mayapan", meaning "Standard of the Maya people". The chief of the Cocom family, a rich and ancient lineage that had taken part in the revolt against Chichen, was chosen to be king, but all the other noble families and regional lords were to send members of their families to Mayapan to play parts in the government. This arrangement lasted for over 200 years. (An alternative account is given in a Maya chronicle from the Colonial era, claiming that Mayapan was contemporary with Chichen and Uxmal and in alliance with those cities, but archeological evidence shows this version to be less likely.) In 1441, Ah Xupan of the powerful noble family of Xiu became resentful of the political machinations of the Cocom rulers and organized a revolt. At the end of this most of the Cocom family were killed, Mayapan was sacked, burned, and abandoned, and Yucatan fell apart into warring city states. Mayapan: Picture taken from "El Castillo" or "Kukulcan Temple" Archaeological evidence indicates that at least the ceremonial center was burned at the end of the occupation. Excavation has revealed burnt roof beams in several of the major buildings in the site center. Five years of archeological investigations at Mayapan were conducted by the archaeologists of the Carnegie Institution in the 1950s, including A. L. Smith, Robert Smith, Tatiana Proskouriakoff, Edwin Shook, Karl Ruppert and J. Eric Thompson. Their work was published in a mimeographed series of Current Reports. The final report was published by the Carnegie Institution as Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico, by H. E. D. Pollock, Ralph L. Roys, A. L. Smith, and Tatiana Proskouriakoff (1962, Publication 619). In the early 1990s, Clifford T. Brown of Tulane University carried out excavations in the residential zones of Mayapan as part of his doctoral dissertation research. Several years later, the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) began extensive architectural excavations and consolidation under the direction of archaeologist Carlos Peraza Lope. This work continues to the present and has resulted in the exposure and discovery of many important artifacts, murals, stuccoes, and architectural elements. In 2001, further investigations were begun at the site under the direction of Dr. Marilyn Masson from the State University New York at Albany and Carlos Peraza Lope of INAH. Their research is described in more detail at
      6. "Mérida"
   3. "Quintana Roo"
      1. "Sian Ka'an" Sian Ka'an "Quintana Roo", "Cozumel" et "Felipe Carrillo Puerto" N19 23 00 W87 47 30 In the language of the Mayan peoples who once inhabited this region, Sian Ka'an means 'Origin of the Sky'. Located on the east coast of the Yucatán peninsula, this biosphere reserve contains tropical forests, mangroves and marshes, as well as a large marine section intersected by a barrier reef. It provides a habitat for a remarkably rich flora and a fauna comprising more than 300 species of birds, as well as a large number of the region's characteristic terrestrial vertebrates, which cohabit in the diverse environment formed by its complex hydrological system.
      2. Réserve de la Biosphère "Banco Chinchorro" Coordinates: 1 : 18º 40’ 44.24'N, 87º 28’ 28.27' W2 : 18º 48’ 46.03'N, 87º 12’ 01.85'W3 : 18º 21’ 37.36'N, 87º 28’ 23.77'W4: 18°21'39.10'N, 87°11'59.95'W La réserve de la biosphère Banco Chinchorro est située dans la mer des Caraïbes à 30.8 kilomètres à l'est de l'agglomération côtière "Mahahual" qui constitue le point continental le plus proche ; la réserve est séparée de la côte moyennant un canal de 1,000 mètres de profondeur. Le village de Mahahual appartient au municipio de "Othon" P. Blanco dans l'État de "Quintana Roo". Milieu naturel La réserve de la biosphère Banco Chinchorro s'étend sur une superficie de 144,360 hectares dont uniquement 0.4 % est de terre ferme. Elle renferme trois zones centrales qui occupent une superficie totale de 4,587.5 hectares tandis que la zone tampon s'étend sur 139,773.5 hectares. La réserve comprend des formations récifales, une lagune récifale, trois îlots rocheux (îlot Lobos, îlot Centro et îlot Norte) et des eaux océaniques adjacentes. Elle constitue un ensemble récifal de la catégorie d'atoll ou récif de plateforme. La réserve, qui est considérée comme une des plus vastes structures de son genre dans le bassin des Caraïbes, est la plus importante du Mexique. Par sa localisation dans la mer des Caraïbes, elle fait partie du système récifal méso-américain. Situé en pleine mer, Banco Chinchorro émerge comme une lagune récifale qui, étant donné sa faible profondeur et sa barrière récifale provoque des mouvements de houle et des processus de sédimentation. D'autre part, la barrière récifale protège le littoral des assauts des tempêtes tropicales et des cyclones. Banco Chinchorro est un système récifal extrêmement complexe et unique au Mexique. En ce qui concerne l'écologie, c'est un système d'une grande hétérogénéité d'habitats qui se doit à plusieurs facteurs : sa topographie coralline, sa topographie sous-marine irrégulière, son orientation relative à l'influence des courants côtiers, la marée et le mouvement des vagues. Les écosystèmes qui ont trait aux processus de reproduction, d'élevage et de propagation d'espèces à grande valeur écologique et économique et qui sont extrêmement bénéfiques à la zone se composent de récifs de corail, d'herbage marin, de bancs de sable, d'îlots rocheux, d'étendues basses de terrains recouverts d'arbustes et de plages sablonneuses. Par ailleurs, Banco Chinchorro est un appréciable pourvoyeur de larves d'espèces écologiques et économiques de grande importance, que les courants maritimes de la zone transportent de la réserve à la zone côtière. Les recherches effectuées dans la réserve ont permis de dresser une liste de 778 espèces : 58 % correspondent à la faune marine, 14 % à la faune terrestre, 18 % à la flore marine et 10 % à la flore terrestre. La faune marine comprend les coraux, certaines espèces qui caractérisent la réserve et qui forment le cordon récifal qui constitue la structure morphologique de Banco Chinchorro. La composition des coraux est richement représentée par des hexacoralliaires, des octocoralliaires et des hydrozoaires, parmi lesquels 95 espèces sont connues. Ces coraux contribuent de manière significative à la génération d'un milieu hétérogène. Plus ce milieu présente une grande complexité structurale, plus les habitats augmentent en quantité, ce qui entraîne la grande diversité des espèces dans le système récifal dans son ensemble. Cette grande diversité typique des écosystèmes récifaux coralliens bien développés, leur permet de maintenir un tissu trophique remarquablement complexe. La pêche qui est la plus importante activité économique dans la réserve de Banco Chinchorro depuis plus de quarante ans, est soumise à une normativité établie à la création de la réserve. Les espèces dont la valeur économique est importante sont l'escargot de mer rose (Strombus gigas) et la langouste (Panulirus argus), en plus de quelques espèces à écaille. Milieu culturel L'importance archéologique et historique de Banco Chinchorro se doit à l'existence de nombreuses épaves sur la barrière récifale, autant sur la marge orientale que sur la marge occidentale. Des 44 épaves repérées dans la zone, 33 sont indiquées sur un plan basé sur des sources bibliographiques ; ces embarcations dont l'ancienneté fluctue entre le XVI et le XX siècles, sont de diverses nationalités. Banco Chinhorro est considéré comme un grand cimetière de bateaux dans lequel les éléments culturels et naturels constituent un ensemble indissociable ; la variété de contextes archéologiques que cette zone renferme et la richesse historique et culturelle qui se dégage des recherches effectuées témoignent d'une valeur patrimoniale que peu de régions possèdent. Par son importance, ce patrimoine culturel subaquatique requiert protection, conservation, recherche et diffusion.
      3. "Coba" ( "Cobá" in the Spanish language) is a large ruined city of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. It is located about 90 km east of the Maya site of Chichen Itza, about 40 km west of the Caribbean Sea, and 44 km northwest of the site of Tulum, with which it is connected by a modern road. One of two ballgame courts at Cobá. Coba is located around two lagoons. A series of elevated stone and plaster roads radiate from the central site to various smaller sites near and far. These are known by the Maya term sacbe (plural sacbeob). Some of these causeways go east to the Caribbean coast, and the longest runs over 100 kilometres (62 mi) westwards to the site of Yaxuna. The site contains several large temple pyramids, the tallest, in what is known as the Nohoch Mul group of structures, being some 42 metres (140 ft) in height (tallest in the Yucatan). Coba is estimated to have had some 50,000 inhabitants (and possibly significantly more) at its peak of civilization, and the built up area extends over some 80 km². The site was occupied by a sizable agricultural population by the 1st century. The bulk of Coba's major construction seems to have been made in the middle and late Classic period, about 500 to 900, with most of the dated hieroglypic inscriptions from the 7th century. However Coba remained an important site in the Post-Classic era and new temples were built and old ones kept in repair until at least the 14th century, possibly as late as the arrival of the Spanish. Front view of the pyramid structure known as "La Iglesia" in the Group B, or Cobá Group, complex. Stela 11 is in the foreground at the base of the pyramid's steps, under the thatched roofing. Economy Coba traded extensively with other Mayan communities, particularly the ones further south along the Caribbean coast in what is now Belize and Honduras. It utilized the ports of Xcaret, Xel-Há, Tancah, Muyil, and Tulum. Modern explorations Knowledge of this expansive site was never completely lost, but it was not examined by scholars until the 1920s. John Lloyd Stephens mentioned hearing reports of the site in 1841, but it was so distant from any known modern road or village that he decided the difficulty in trying to get there was too daunting. For much of the rest of the 19th century the area could not be visited by outsiders due to the Caste War of Yucatán. Teoberto Maler paid Coba a short visit in 1893 and took at least one photograph, but unfortunately did not publish at the time and the site remained unknown to the archeological community. Amateur explorer Dr. Thomas Gann was brought to the site by some local Maya hunters in February 1926. Gann published the first first-hand description of the ruins later the same year. Gann gave a short description to the archeologists of the Carnegie Institution project at Chichen Itza, which sent out an expedition under J. Eric S. Thompson. Thompson's initial report of a surprisingly large site with many inscriptions prompted Sylvanus Morley to mount a more thorough examination of the site. The Nohoch Mul pyramid. Eric Thompson made a number of return visits to the site through 1932, in which year he published a detailed description. The site remained little visited due to its remoteness until the first modern road was opened up to Coba in the early 1970s. As a major resort was planned for Cancún, it was realized that clearing and restoring some of the large site could make it an important tourist attraction. The Mexican National Institute of Anthropology & History began some archeological excavations in 1972 directed by Carlos Navarrete, and consolidated a couple buildings. At the start of the 1980s another road to Coba was opened up and paved, regular bus service begun, and a small Villas Archeologicas Hotel was opened up by the Club Med (with its own electric generator, since the village at Coba was otherwise without electricity). Today there is a resident population of 1,167 (2005 census). Coba became a tourist destination shortly thereafter, with many visitors visiting the site on day trips from Cancún and the Riviera Maya. Only a small portion of the site has been cleared from the jungle and restored by archaeologists. Local guides are available at the entrance to the site, as well as bicycle rentals to get to some of the farther ruins within the archaeological zone. Coba, like all archaeological sites in Mexico open to the public via INAH, is free to Mexican citizens on Sundays and national holidays. There is a small pueblo near the ruins, with some restaurants and small shops selling local crafts.
         • Link to tables of population data from Census of 2005 INEGI: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática
         • Photo Gallery at the Science Museum of Minnesota
         • New York Times: Lore Among The Ruins. April 27, 2003
      4. "Goiás"
      5. "Goiás"
   4. "Tabasco"
      1. Wetlands of "Centla" and "Términos" State, Province or Region: Southeast Mexico; States of Tabasco and Campeche Coordinates: Easting: 565687.41 Northing: 2042676.45 UTM 15Q The Wetlands of Centla and Términos are one of the most valuable ecological landscapes in Mesoamerica. These wetlands are part of a delta system formed by the Mezcalapa, Grijalva and Usumancinta rivers - one of the largest hydrological watersheds in Mexico, with an average yearly runoff of 117,000 million cubic meters. Wetlands comprise approximately 5,000 km2 of the area, making them an important source of biodiversity and primary productivity and one of the 15 most important wetlands worldwide. The geological region of the Wetlands of Centla and Términos is one of the most important in Mexico, for it is the center of convergence of different tectonic alignments in the Yucatan Peninsula. The landscape is composed of low, undulating hills interspersed with depressions of alluvium deposits. With respect to its edaphological or soil characteristics, the region is composed of well drained soils classified as Gleysol, Solonchak, Vertisol and Fluvisol. The Wetlands of Centla and Términos are flooded alluvial plains, where hydrological, geomorphologic and pedological processes have created a vast mosaic of , aquatic and terrestrial plant communities, providing critical habitat for various species, and a vital nesting site for marine turtles and migratory birds. The Wetlands of Centla and Términos were formed as a result of over flooding of the Usumacinta River and changes in slope, thereby creating the floodplains. The only areas of firm land are natural damns or banks up to 1-2 m high and 100-500 m wide. These banks are aligned with those of the major rivers in the region, and cross the Usumacinta River and the San Pedro and San Pablo River and their tributaries. The Wetlands of Centla and Términos region contains several landforms representative of the Tabasco lowlands: floodplains, palustrine plains, freshwater lagoons, plains made up of a series of berms, and coastal lagoon plains. These comprise about 110 permanent and temporal freshwater bodies in the region. The weather is characterized by hot and sub-humid climate, with abundant summer rain. Annual temperatures average 26-28oC, with 1200-2000 mm of mean annual precipitation. The region is characterized by a variety of plant communities. Here, a flora of 569 different species in 118 families has been identified within the mangrove forests and wetlands. The aquatic plant community includes emerging rooted hydrophytes, such as popal, carrizal, tular and rooted hydrophytes with floating leaves. The mangrove forests that border the Wetlands of Centla and Términos are classified as tropical ecosystems with high biodiversity. These forests are the most representative, developed and extensive in the region. Some of the mangrove trees grow up to 25-30 m and are over 1 m in diameter, making them the most developed within their latitude. The mangroves are characterised by 4 main species: Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), Aviceennia germinans (black mangrove), Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove) y Conocarpus erectus (button mangrove). Eighty-three families of molluscs have been identified, with a total of 207 species. Additionally, 15 species of crustaceans, and 125 species of fish from 101 families have been reported in the region, some of which have an important economic and nourishment value. The herpetofauna community is comprised of 134 species, including river crocodile, Morelet's crocodile, caiman crocodile, white turtle, white-lipped mud turtle, (Kinosternon leucostomum), freshwater turtles (Pseudemys scripta), giant musk turtle (Staurotypus triporcatus), snapping turtle (Chelidra serpentina), and in lesser numbers, the furrowed wood turtle (Rhinoclemys areeolata). Additionally, hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Kemp's ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempi) can be found on Términos lagoon's beaches. The wetlands also provide a refuge for a variety of migratory and resident bird species. About 33% of the bird population that use the Mississippi migration route is estimated to use the Wetlands of Centla and Términos. Among those species are the Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria), wood stork (Mycteria americana), boat-billed heron (Cochlearius cochlearius), Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata), black-bellied whistling duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis), blue-winged teal (Anas discors), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), roseate spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja) and white ibis (Eudocimus albus). Overall, 49 families and 328 species of birds have been reported to use the Wetlands of Centla and Términos, 69% of which are year-round residents and 31% are resident during the winter months. Of particular interest is the Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria), which is in danger of extinction. Jabiru mycteria is one of the biggest species in Mexico and the Americas, with a 3 m wingspan and a height of over 1.5 m. Of the mammals, 124 species have been reported. Some of these mammals are protected, including manatee (Trichechus manatus), jaguar (Panthera onca), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), margay (Leopardus weidii), and howler monkey (Alouatta palliate), tapir (Tapirus bairdii), agouti (Agouti paca), spider monkey (A. geoffroyi yucatanensis), Central-American woolly opossum (Caluromys derbianus), Mexican porcupine (Coendou mexicanus) and jaguarondi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi). Additionally, two mammals of particular appeal to the area are the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and the nutria (Lontra longicaudis), which can be found at the mouth of the Términos Lagoon. Justification for Outstanding Universal Value Justification of Outstanding Universal Value Criteria (ix) These wetlands were formed by the rivers in the deltaic system, which have created dikes or levees erected by the vertical accretion of sediments. This phenomenon occurs when water rises above the principal canal and the fluvial sediments carried by the water are deposited on the adjacent plain. This arrangement of levees along the rivers explains the geomorphologic characteristics of the Tabasco and Campeche floodplains, which are made up of many distributaries and depressions. This geomorphology determines the level of flooding experienced and establishes a gradient from the drier areas of the region to the perennial lagoons and wetlands. The costal levees in the delta are another landscape feature of the Wetlands of Centla and Términos. The levees are a system of banks with small crests of 1-3 meters high and separated by depressions 20 to 100 m long. These structures are made up of contiguous succession of banks and depressions created in the last 5,000 years, once the current sea level stabilized at the end of the Holocene transgression. The system of levees dammed the adjacent sea and gave way to the formation of the lagoons perpendicular to the coast line, such as the lagoons of Carmen, Machona, Mecoacán, Pom, Atasta, and Términos. As the delta progresses into the sea, the gradient and carrying capacity of the rivers decreases. This in turn impedes the flow of the principal canal and forces its currents to overflow at the lowest points, and subsequently changes the trajectories of the distributaries. Thus, Tabasco and Campeche's deltaic plains show signs of innumerable closed fluvial channels, which indicate a series of changes to the hydrologic network that were repeated throughout the Quaternary period. The Wetlands of Centla and Términos form one of the most productive ecosystems of the world. The ecosystem includes mangrove forests, numerous lagoon estuaries, marshlands, aquatic grasslands, freshwater wetlands, rivers, swamp forests, flooded low forests and freshwater lagoons. These dynamic ecosystems are interconnected, and interact with each other in different ways. They are a source of rich biodiversity, manifested by the innumerable species of plants and animals whose subsistence depends on the wetlands as an important source of water. The mangrove forests and marine grasslands provide the best example of integrated landscape ecosystems: together they form a mosaic of interrelated and interacting subsystems that link physical and biological processes. The wetlands contain important flooded areas that give life to a rich biodiversity of plant communities. The system of wetlands and mangrove forests within the area has high structural and functional biodiversity, is a major source of primary productivity, and maintains a high level of water quality along the coastline. Criteria (x) The Wetlands of Centla and Términos form an ecological unit that contains unique habitats indispensable for the conservation of a rich biodiversity. The aquatic communities are the most developed and extensive of the region, and considered the most important source of vascular plants in Mesoamerica, with 569 different species. This spectacular diversity of hydrophytes makes the wetlands home to 328 species of birds. Within the Wetlands of Centla and Términos, the mangrove forests are considered critical habitat for many species. The mangroves grow up to 25-30 m high with an average diameter of over 1 m, due to the physiological and climatic characteristics of the region, thus becoming one of the most valuable assets for conservation and scientific research. The wetlands are refuge of diverse species of birds, mammals, fish, reptiles and amphibians considered threatened or at risk of extinction. Examples of these include the Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria), wood stork (Mycteria Americana), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), osprey (Pandion haeliaetus), jaguar (Panthera onca), two howler monkey species (Alouatta pigra y A. palliata), manatee (Trichechus manatus), sea turtles (Caretta caretta, Lepidochelys kempii, Eretmochelys imbricada and Chelonya mydas), among others. In particular, the Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria) is the largest bird in Mexico and North America, measuring 150 cm in height with a 250 cm wingspan. This bird is considered endangered under the NOM 059-SEMARNAT-2001 in Mexico, and in Appendix 1 of CITES. Only 100 individuals are estimated remain, and the areas under which they are protected in Mexico is diminishing. These areas are restricted to the Protected Areas of Sian Ka'an, and Pantanos de Centla and the Términos Lagoon, the majority of which are located in the Wetlands of Centla and Términos. Satements of authenticity and/or integrity This area is recognised by the IUCN under the Usumacinta and Tabasco Laguna Delta. This region of wetlands and/or marine zones has utmost importance and should be considered as a World Heritage. In: R. Ferster and T. Sigaty. 1997. Una visión de conjunto de las áreas protegidas de humedal y marinas en la lista de Patrimonio Mundial. World Heritage Program. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. The Wetlands of Centla and Términos are part of the Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserve and the Laguna de Términos Wildlife Protected Area, created in 1992 and 1994 respectively. The wetland boundaries and regulations that protect them, were established by the General Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection Law. With respect to the protection of its flora and fauna, the protection and conservation of the wetlands have been reinforced by the Mexican Environmental Law NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001. This law identifies species of flora and fauna or their populations classified at risk in Mexico. Additionally, this law establishes the criteria for inclusion or changes in category of risk for species or their populations in Mexico, and evaluates their risk of extinction. A Conservation Management Program was established for each protected area, and published in the Official Journal of the Federation; in 1997 for the Laguna de Términos and in 2000 for Pantanos de Centla. These programs develop criteria and strategies to insure ecosystem conservation in these areas located along the Gulf of Mexico coast. The Ramsar Convention of Wetlands recognised the Pantanos de Centla Wetlands in 1995, and the Laguna de Términos wetlands in 2004. Ramsar considers these wetlands of international importance. Moreover, the Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserve has been included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves - Man and Biosphere Program (MAB), UNESCO, in September 2006. Comparison with other similar properties Wetlands and costal zones are the most productive environments in the world, maintaining important ecological processes and providing vast socioeconomic benefits. They are a source of genetic diversity and are vital in sustaining fisheries. Moreover, they provide critical habitat for vulnerable species, which make them one of the world's most endangered habitat. The Wetlands of Centla and Términos have similar qualities to those of other World Heritage sites. They contribute to the conservation of mangrove forests, protection of threatened and endangered species, and maintenance of hydrological cycles similar to the Everglades in the USA, the Plátano River in Honduras, the Sundarbarns in India and the Gran Pantanal in Brasil. The Everglades, USA, have exceptional variety of fluvial ecosystems (riverine, lacustrian, estuarine and marine) that provide critical habitat for a large number of birds, reptiles and endangered species such as the manatee (Trichechus manatus). The Plátano River's coast, Honduras, provides a wide range of habitat containing a high diversity of wildlife. This habitat is critical for many rare and endangered species and is an important source of genetic diversity. The Sundarbarns, India, have extensive mangrove forests that are well conserved, are part of one of the largest deltas in the world, and are inhabited by many threatened and endangered species. The Gran Pantanal, Brasil, has a wide diversity of landscapes, ecosystems and species, and demonstrates as well a great geological and hydrological complexity at a national scale. Additionally, it provides critical habitat for many threatened and endangered species, both migratory and endemic.
      2. "Villahermosa" (Spanish: Beautiful Village) is the capital city of the Mexican state of Tabasco, and the municipal seat of the Centro municipality. Villahermosa reported a population of 658,524 in the 2005 census, whereas its Centro municipality had 558,524 inhabitants. The municipality covers an area of 1,612 km2 (622.4 sq mi). The city is located at 863 kilometers from Mexico City, and 998 kilometers from Cancún, making it the virtual equidistant stopover point between these two world-renowned centers of tourism.

         La Venta Museum-Park, which includes a small zoo, has the most important collection of Olmec artifacts.

         Other sights include:

         • Teatro Iris Arts Center
         • Plaza de Armas Villahermosa (main square)
         • Zona Luz (downtown)
         • Catedral del Señor de Tabasco (Cathedral of the Lord of Tabasco)
         • CICOM complex
         • Tomás Garrido Canabal Park
         • Museum of the History of Tabasco
         • Yumká (zoo where animals roam freely)
         • La Choca Park
         • Tabasco Park - a 'must see' during the Feria festivities
         • Papagayo Children's Museum
      3. "La Venta" is a pre-Columbian archaeological site of the Olmec civilization located in the present-day Mexican state of Tabasco. The Olmec civilization was the first civilization of the Americas. Rising from the sedentary agriculturalists of the Gulf Lowlands as early as 1600 BCE, the Olmecs held sway in the Olmec heartland, an area on the southern Gulf of Mexico coastal plain, in Veracruz and Tabasco. Roughly 125 miles long and 50 miles wide (200 by 80 km), with the Coatzalcoalcos River system running through the middle, the heartland is home to the major Olmec sites of La Venta, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, Laguna de los Cerros, and Tres Zapotes. The Olmec Heartland, showing La Venta. By no later than 1200 BCE, San Lorenzo had emerged as the most prominent Olmec center. While a layer of occupation at La Venta dates to 1200 BCE, La Venta did not reach its apogee until the decline of San Lorenzo, after 900 BCE. After 500 years of pre-eminence, La Venta was all but abandoned by the beginning of the fourth century BCE.[1] Located on an island in a coastal swamp overlooking the then-active Río Palma, La Venta probably controlled a region between the Mezcalapa and Coatzacoalcos rivers. The site itself is about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) inland with the island consisting of slightly more than 2 square miles (5 km²) of dry land. The main part of the site is a complex of clay constructions stretched out for 20 kilometres (12.4 mi) in a north-south direction, although the site is oriented 8° west of north. The urbanized zone may have covered an area as large of 2 km². Unlike later Maya or Aztec cities, La Venta was built from earth and clay—there was little locally abundant stone for the construction. Large basalt stones were brought in from the Tuxtla mountains, but these were used nearly exclusively for monuments including the colossal heads, the "altars" (actually thrones), and various stelae. For example, the basalt columns that surround Complex A were quarried from Punta Roca Partida, on the Gulf coast north of the San Andres Tuxtla volcano.[2] Today, the entire southern end of the site is covered by a petroleum refinery and has been largely demolished, making excavations difficult or impossible. Many of the site's monuments are now on display in the archaeological museum and park in the city of Villahermosa, Tabasco. Major features of La Venta Archaeological site plan for La Venta. Notice how the site is aligned slightly west -- 8° west -- of north. Several Mesoamerican sites have this alignment, including San Jose Mogote. One of the three buried Mosaics or Pavements from La Venta, consisting of nearly 500 blocks of serpentine. La Venta was a civic and ceremonial center. While it may have included as-yet-undiscovered regal residences, habitation for the non-regal elite and the commoners were located at outlying sites such as San Andrés. Instead of dwellings, La Venta is dominated by a restricted sacred area (Complex A), the Great Pyramid, and the large plaza to their south. As a ceremonial center, La Venta contains an elaborate series of buried offerings and tombs, as well as monumental sculptures. These stone monuments, stelae, and "altars" were carefully distributed amongst the mounds and platforms. The mounds and platforms were built largely from local sands and clays. It is assumed that many of these platforms were once topped with wooden structures, which have long since disappeared. Great Pyramid One of the earliest pyramids known in Mesoamerica, the Great Pyramid is 110 ft (33 m) high and contains an estimated 100,000 cubic meters of earth fill. The current conical shape of the pyramid was once thought to represent nearby volcanoes or mountains, but recent work by Rebecca Gonzalez-Lauck has shown that the pyramid was in fact a rectangular pyramid with stepped sides and inset corners, and the current shape is most likely due to 2500 years of erosion. The pyramid itself has never been excavated, but a magnetometer survey in 1967 found an anomaly high on the south side of the pyramid. Speculation ranges from a section of burned clay to a cache of buried offerings to a tomb. Complex A Complex A is a mound and plaza group located just to the north of the Great Pyramid. Surrounded by a series of basalt columns, which likely restricted access to the elite, it was erected in a period of 4 construction phases that span over 4 centuries. Beneath the mounds and plazas were found a vast array of offerings and other buried objects, more than 50 separate caches by one count, including buried jade celts, polished mirrors made of iron-ores, and five large "Massive Offerings" of serpentine blocks. It is estimated that Massive Offering 3 contains 50 tons of carefully finished serpentine blocks, covered by 4,000 tons of clay fill.[3] Also unearthed in Complex A were 3 rectangular mosaics (also known as "Pavements") each roughly 15 ft × 20 ft and each consisting of up to 485 blocks of serpentine. These blocks were arranged horizontally to form what has been variously interpreted as an ornate Olmec bar-and-four-dots motif, the Olmec Dragon,[4] a very abstract jaguar mask,[5] a cosmogram,[6] or a symbolic map of La Venta and environs.[7] Not intended for display, soon after completion these pavements were covered over with colored clay and then many feet of earth. Five formal tombs were discovered within Complex A, one with a sarcophagus carved with what seemed to be an earth monster. Diehl states that these tombs "are so elaborate and so integrated to the architecture that it seems clear that Complex A really was a mortuary complex dedicated to the spirits of deceased rulers".[8] Other notable artifacts within Complex A include: Monument 19 (see photo below). This relief sculpture is the earliest known example of the feathered serpent in Mesoamerica. Offering 4. Sixteen figurines and six celts form a strange tableau. Complex B South of the Great Pyramid lies Complex B. Whereas Complex A was apparently restricted to the elite, the plaza of Complex B seems to be built specifically for large public gatherings. This plaza is just south of the Great Pyramid, east of the Complex B platforms, and west of the huge raised platform referred to as the Stirling Acropolis.[9] This plaza is nearly 400 meters (437 yards) long and over 100 meters (109 yards) wide. A small platform is situated in the center of the plaza. This layout has led researchers to propose that the platforms surrounding the plaza functioned as stages where ritual drama was enacted for viewers within the plaza.[10] These rituals were likely related to the "altars", monuments, and the stelae surrounding and within the plaza. These monuments, including Colossal Head 1, were of such a large size and were placed in such a position that they could convey their messages to many viewers at once. Summary The arrangement of the mounds, platforms, complexes, and monumental artifacts at La Venta created a unique civil and ceremonial center that, in the words of Rebecca Gonzalez-Lauck, constitutes "one of the earliest examples of large-scale ideological communications through the interaction of architecture and sculpture".[11] Monumental artifacts at La Venta Olmec colossal head from La Venta. Now in Villahermosa, this head is 2½ m high (9 ft) and is officially known as Monument 1 Colossal heads Certainly the most famous of the La Venta monumental artifacts are the four colossal heads. Seventeen colossal heads have been unearthed in the Olmec area, four of them at La Venta, officially named Monuments 1 through 4. Three of the heads—Monuments 2, 3, & 4—were found roughly 150 meters north of Complex A, which is itself just north of the Great Pyramid. These heads were in a slightly irregular row, facing north. The other colossal head—Monument 1 (shown at left) -- is a few dozen meters south of the Great Pyramid. The La Venta heads are thought to have been carved by 700 BCE, but possibly as early as 850 BCE, while the San Lorenzo heads are credited to an earlier period. The colossal heads can measure up to 9 ft 4 in. in height and weigh several tons. The sheer size of the stones causes a great deal of speculation on how the Olmecs were able to move them. The major basalt quarry for the colossal heads at La Venta was found at Cerro Cintepec in the Tuxtla Mountains, over 80 km away.[12] Each of the heads wears headgear reminiscent of 1920s-style American football helmets, although each is unique in its decoration. These helmets probably served as protection in war and in the ceremonial Mesoamerican ballgame played throughout Mesoamerica. The consensus is that the heads likely represent mighty Olmec rulers. Altar 4 at La Venta. Note the rope that winds along the ground, held by the figure. Note also the eyes and the fangs on the cornice above the figure, implying that the figure is seated in that creature's mouth. (For an oblique view of Altar 4, click here.) Matthew Stirling posing with the primary figure from Altar 5. This photo effectively shows the sheer size of the altars. (For a full view of Altar 5, click here.) This is a still from the Smithsonian Institution's Exploring Hidden Mexico (1943). Altars 4 & 5 Seven basalt "altars" were found at La Venta, the most familiar being Altar 4 and Altar 5. These altars, roughly 2 meters high and twice as wide, both feature an elaborately dressed and sculpted figure on the center front. The figure on Altar 4 is sitting inside what appears to be a cave or the mouth of a fantastic creature, holding a rope which wraps around the base of the altar to his right and left. On the left side, the rope is connected to a seated bas-relief figure. The right side is eroded away but is thought to be similar to the scene on the right. The consensus today is that these "altars" are thrones on which the Olmec rulers were seated during important rituals or ceremonies. This leads many researchers to interpret the figure at the front of Altar 4 as a ruler, who is contacting or being helped by his ancestors, the figures on either side of the altar.[13] Alternatively, some believe the side figures to be bound captives. Altar 5 faces Altar 4 across Structure D-8 (one of the dozens of mounds at La Venta, the remains of platforms). Altar 5 is similar in design and size to Altar 4, except that the central figure holds an inert, perhaps dead, were-jaguar baby. The left side of Altar 5 features bas-reliefs of humans holding quite lively were-jaguar babies. Like the Altar 4, the right side of Altar 5 has been defaced. Some have seen child sacrifice echoed in the limp were-jaguar baby on the front of Altar 5. Others, however, view the tableau as a myth of human emergence or as story of a spiritual journey. Although less striking and displaying a lesser degree of craftmanship, Altars 2 and 3 are similar to Altars 4 and 5. They each show a central figure, one with a baby and one without, and they sit facing each other on the southern edge of the Great Pyramid. Social structure Little is known about the structure of La Venta society or about the Olmec state. From the size and diversity of La Venta, it is assumed that the society consisted of an elite class, a class of artisans, and a large pool of laborers and farmers who supported these classes. It has been estimated that La Venta would need to be supported by a population of at least 18,000 people during its principal occupation.[14] Discovery and excavation Monument 19, from La Venta, the earliest known representation of a feathered serpent in Mesoamerica. Courtesy George & Audrey Delange Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge made the first detailed descriptions of La Venta during their 1925 expedition, sponsored by Tulane University. La Venta was first excavated by Matthew Stirling between 1941 and 1943, with several subsequent excavations following through the 1960s. Stirling is sometimes credited with identifying the Olmec civilization; although some Olmec sites and monuments had been known earlier, it was Stirling's work that put the Olmec culture into context. Rebecca Gonzalez-Lauck led an INAH (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia) team on digs here in the 1980s. Threats to La Venta On January 11, 2009, 23 ancient Olmec sculptures were vandalized, prompting Mexican legislators to draft legislation "that would increase fines and jail time for vandalism and looting of monuments and archaeological sites."
         • Offering 4 at La Venta
         • San Andrés - one of La Venta's well-studied satellite communities
         • Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures
         • History of Mexico
         • List of Mesoamerican pyramids
         • List of megalithic sites
         • The DeLanges visit La Venta - photos of Complex A
      4. "San Andrés" is an Olmec archaeological site in the present-day Mexican state of Tabasco. Located 5 km northeast of the Olmec ceremonial center of La Venta, San Andrés is considered one of its elite satellite communities, with evidence of elite residences and other elite activities. Several important archaeological finds have been made at San Andrés, including the oldest evidence of the domesticated sunflower,[1] and possible evidence of an Olmec writing system. The earliest evidence of human activity at San Andrés – maize (Zea species) pollen and extensive charcoal deposits from swidden (slash-and-burn) agriculture – has been dated to roughly 5100 BCE. At that time, the Gulf of Mexico was further inland and San Andrés was the site of beach ridges and barrier lagoons, features that are today some 15 km to the north.[3] Later evidence of human habitation includes pollen dated to 4600 BCE, seeds from 2600 BCE, and evidence of maize cultivation from 2000 BCE. San Andrés and La Venta in the context of the Olmec heartland The first evidence of Olmec occupation has been dated to 1350 BCE, an occupation that lasted some 150 years (until 1200 BCE), with an ensuing hiatus lasting until roughly 900 BCE. Continuously occupied over the following 550 years, San Andrés was finally abandoned some time before 350 BCE. This date coincides with the abandonment of the La Venta and the dissolution of the Olmec culture.[4] Early traces of domesticated plants San Andrés is notable for the ancient pollen and seeds recovered there. Although the humid rainy tropical lowlands have made quick work of organic substances, including Olmec skeletal remains, the multi-disciplinary research team delved below the water table, hoping that the preservative nature of water-logged soil would enable them to retrieve ancient samples. Their findings include: Early maize (Zea species) pollen from as early as 5100 BCE. A single manioc pollen grain dated to roughly 4600 BCE. Since manioc pollen is rare in sediments, its discovery was either "fortuitous, or abundant stands of manioc were growing close to the site". A domesticated sunflower seed and fruit dated to roughly 2650 BCE and 2550 BCE respectively. This is the earliest record yet of the domesticated sunflower. Cotton (Gossypium) pollen from roughly 2500 BCE. The researchers suggest that this cotton was domesticated, although wild cotton does occur naturally along the Gulf Coast to the east.[5] Indications of an Olmec writing system San Andrés glyphs. The top set of glyphs have been interpreted as "3 Ajaw". The bottom two glyphs were found incised into semi-precious greenstone artifacts. Excavations at San Andrés in 1997 and 1998 produced three artifacts that many archaeologists contend demonstrate that the Olmec civilization used a true writing system. These artifacts, dated very roughly to 650 BCE, were found in a refuse dump, the remains from a festival or feast. The most important find was a fist-sized ceramic cylinder seal, likely used to print cloth. When rolled out, the seal shows two speech scrolls emanating from a bird, followed directly by a number of design elements enframing what has been interpreted as logograms for "3 Ajaw", a designation used for both a calendar date and, in keeping with Mesoamerican custom, the name of an Olmec ruler. In addition to the ceramic cylinder seal, two fingernail-sized fragments from a greenstone plaque have been recovered, each containing an incised glyph. Both these glyphs have been linked to well-documented glyphs in other Mesoamerican writing systems, including the Isthmian and Maya scripts.[6] Well-known archaeologist and writer Michael D. Coe interprets these glyphs as "an early kind of writing"[7] while Richard A. Diehl, who excavated at the Olmec site of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan with Coe, finds that this discovery "establishes the existence of Olmec writing and calendrics by 650 B.C."[8] On the other hand, Mayanist epigrapher David Stuart stated that it would be hard to discern evidence of a writing system in a handful of symbols.[9] Cascajal Block The question of whether the Olmecs possessed a writing system was complicated in 2006 by the discovery of the Cascajal Block. This artifact, a slab of serpentine with 62 incised characters, has been dated to 900 BCE, although it was discovered without archaeological context. Instead of being precursors to the San Andrés glyphs, however, the 28 unique Cascajal block characters bear no obvious resemblance to them and are, indeed, unlike those of any other Mesoamerican writing system.[10] Questions concerning the interpretation of the San Andrés glyphs (and the Cascajal block) will need to await further research. See also El Manatí - an Olmec archaeological site where, like San Andrés, water-logged soil also preserved organic artifacts External links A comprehensive catalogue of figurines (or rather figurine fragments) recovered at San Andrés, with fine photos. Books and articles focus on the more artistic and complete figurines, while this collection details the entire range of figurines (or more precisely figurine fragments). A comprehensive catalogue of figurines (or rather figurine fragments) recovered at San Andrés, with fine photos. Books and articles focus on the more artistic and complete figurines, while this collection details the entire range of figurines (or more precisely figurine fragments). Cascajal Block The Cascajal Block is a writing tablet-sized serpentine slab which has been dated to the early first millennium BCE incised with hitherto unknown characters that may represent the earliest writing system in the New World. Archaeologist Stephen D. Houston of Brown University said that this discovery helps to "link the Olmec civilization to literacy, document an unsuspected writing system, and reveal a new complexity to [the Olmec] civilization." The Cascajal Block was discovered by road builders in the late 1990s in a pile of debris in the village of Lomas de Tacamichapa in the Veracruz lowlands in the ancient Olmec heartland. The block was found amidst ceramic shards and clay figurines and from these the block is dated to the Olmec archaeological culture's San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán phase, which ended c. 900 BCE. This means that the characters on the block are some 400 years older than any other writing known in the Western hemisphere. Archaeologists Carmen Rodriguez and Ponciano Ortiz of the National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico examined and registered it with government historical authorities. It weighs about 11.5 kg (25 lb) and measures 36 cm × 21 cm × 13 cm. Details of the find were published by researchers in the 15 September 2006 issue of the journal Science.[
      5. "Goiás"

5. "Central Mexico"

   Center, surrounding the capital city Central Mexico is the country's historic core. Mexico State Veracruz although the beaches are mostly overlooked by tourists, this state is a favorite of many Mexican travelers. Cities Cuernavaca Toluca Veracruz
   
   
   1. "Mexico" State Mexico is a state in Central Mexico, surrounding the Federal District and Mexico City on three sides. The state boasts upscale suburbs of Mexico city. There are also millions of people who live in shanties on the mountains surrounding the actual Mexico Cities Toluca -- capital of the state The flowered gondolas in the floating gardens of "Xochimilco"
      1. "Ciudad de México" "Mexico City" , "Tenochtitlan" is a huge city with several district articles containing sightseeing, restaurant, nightlife and accommodation listings — consider printing them all. Mexico City Cathedral in the Centro Mexico City [1] (Spanish: México, Ciudad de México, or D.F. (pronounced deh eh-feh)) is the Capital of Mexico, and one of the world's largest and most populated cities. Districts Mexico City main districts and roads The city is officially divided into 16 delegaciones (boroughs) which are in turn subdivided into colonias (neighborhoods), of which there are around 250; however, it is better to think of the city in terms of districts to facilitate the visitor getting around. Many older towns like Coyoacán, San Angel and Tlalpan got merged into the urban sprawl, and each of these still manages to preserve some of its original, unique character. Centro Historico - Where it all began. Historic city center that is focused around the Zócalo or Plaza de la Constitución and extends in all directions for a number of blocks with its furthest extent being west to the Alameda Central. Many historic colonial landmarks, and the famous Aztec Templo Mayor, can be found here. The Zocalo is the largest square in Latin America and the third largest in the world after Moscow’s Red Square and Beijing's Tiananmen Square. Chapultepec - Lomas - Chapultepec is one of the biggest urban parks in the world. Its name means grass hopper hill. The Park hosts the the main city zoo, a huge castle, lakes, many museums and an amusement park. Lomas de Chapultepec is the wealthiest district in the city nearby Chapultepec, and is filled with walled off mansions. Polanco - One of the wealthiest residential areas with some of the most expensive designersboutique stores in the city. Filled with embassies, upscale restaurants, night clubs and hotels. Zona Rosa - Also known to tourists as Reforma district because embraces Paseo de la Reforma avenue, it is an important business and entertainment district. It is widely known to be the gay center of town. Coyoacán - A colonial town swallowed by the urban sprawl, it is now a center for counter-culture, art, students, and intellectuals. Many good museums can be found here also. Condesa and Roma - Recently reborn after decades of oblivion, and brimming with the city's trendiest restaurants, bistros, clubs, pubs and shops. The neighborhoods are on opposite sides of Avenida Insurgentes, around Parque Mexico and España. San Angel - Trendy, gentrified area lined with cobblestone streets, upscale boutiques and many restaurants. Its a wealthy residential area as well and known for its arts market. "Xochimilco" - Is better known for its extended series of Aztec irrigation canals — all that remains of the ancient "Xochimilco" lake. "Xochimilco" has kept its ancient traditions, even though its proximity to Mexico City influence that area to urbanize. Santa Fe - A modern, recently redeveloped business district at the city western tip that consists mainly of highrise buildings surrounding a large shopping mall. Del Valle and Narvarte - Middle class residential, business and shopping area in south central city. Tlalpan and Pedregal - Largest of the boroughs and Tlalpan is home of Ajusco, a volcanic mountain peak and National Park, one of the highest mountains in Mexico City. The outer area of Mexico City includes: Ciudad Satelite - Residential and shopping area north of the city. Interlomas Residential and shopping area at the West of the City Understand Angel de la Independencia in Zona Rosa The greater Mexico City metropolitan area is one of the world's largest and most populated, with an estimate of about 20 million people living in the region. It is shaped roughly like an oval of about 60 by 40 kilometers, built on the dry bed of Lake Texcoco, and surrounded on three sides by tall mountains and volcanoes such as the Ajusco, the Popocatepetl and the Ixtlacihuatl. Mexico City proper (with an estimated population of between 8 to 9 million) is in the Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F.), a federally-administered area (that is, not part of any Mexican state) which acts as the capital of Mexico. The rest of the metropolitan area extends beyond it into Mexico State, which surrounds D.F. on three sides. Legally and practically speaking, Mexico City is the same as the Federal District, and that is where most tourists will spend the majority of their time when visiting or staying in the city. Downtown Mexico city is very decentralized with both high-rise and low-rise buildings, unlike American cities' skylines. Mexico City is divided up into 16 delegaciones, similar to the boroughs of New York, which in turn are divided into "colonias" (neighborhoods), of which there are about 250. Knowing what colonia you're going to is essential to getting around, almost all locals will know where a given colonia is (however, beware that there are some colonias with duplicate or very similar names). As with many very large cities, the structure is relatively decentralized, with several parts of the city having their own miniature "downtown areas". However, the real downtown areas are Centro, the old city center, and Zona Rosa, the new business and entertainment district. The city is located 2200 meters above the sea level. Some people not used to high places have experienced difficulty when breathing, however these symptoms fade a few minutes after arrival. Difficulty breathing due to pollution, however, can potentially last a bit longer. Skyline of Reforma skyscrapers Mexico City's night life is like all other aspects of the city; it's huge. There is an enormous selection of venues: clubs, bars, restaurants, cafes, and variations and combinations thereof to choose from. There is incredible variation, from ultramodern lounges in Santa Fe and Reforma, to centuries-old dance halls in Centro and Roma. There are also pubs in Tlalpan and Coyoacán and clubs of every stripe in Insurgentes, Polanco, Condesa and the Zona Rosa. Also, when going out, check the date, since this is an important indicator of how full places will generally be, and how long you might have to wait to get in. Salaries are usually paid twice per month, the 30th/31st-1st, and the 14th-15th. On or right after these dates is when most Mexicans will go out, especially if pay day coincides with a weekend. In the more expensive places, people might leave for Acapulco or vacations farther afield during the summer and long weekends. Mexican weekends, in the sense of when it's common to go out drinking, are Thursday night to Sunday morning, and sometimes throughout Sunday. History Chapultepec Park overlooking Polanco's Skyline. The origins of Mexico City date back to 1325, when the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan was founded and later destroyed in 1521 by Spanish conqueror Hernan Cortes. The city served as the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain until the outbreak of the Independence War in 1810. The city became the capital of the Mexican Empire in 1821 and of the Mexican Republic in 1823 after the abdication of Agustin de Iturbide. During the Mexico - U.S. war in 1847, the city was invaded by the American army. In 1864 the French invaded Mexico and the emperor Ferdinand Maximilian of Hapsburg ruled the country from the Castillo de Chapultepec and ordered to build Avenue of the Empress (today's Paseo de la Reforma promenade). Porfirio Díaz assumed power in 1876 and left an outstanding mark in the city with many European styled buildings such as the Palacio de Bellas Artes and the Palacio Postal. Diaz was overthrown in 1910 with the Mexican Revolution and this marked a radical change in the city's architecture. The 20th century saw the uncontrolled growth of the City beyond the Centro Historico with the influx of thousands of immigrants from the rest of the country. In 1968 the city was host to the Olympic Games which saw the construction of the Azteca stadium, the Palacio de los Deportes, the Olympic stadium and other sports facilities. In 1985 the city suffered an 8.1 Richter grade earthquake that tore down several buildings in the Centro Historico, Colonia Roma and other old neighborhoods. Economy Mexico City ranks 8th in terms of GDP size among 30 world cities. More than a third of total Mexican economy is concentrated here. The size of its economy is US $315 billion, compared to $1.1 trillion of that of New York. Mexico City is the wealthiest city in all of Latin America, with a nominal GDP per capita is $37,696. Mexico City's poverty rate is also the lowest in Mexico, and its Human Development Index (HDI) is the highest in the nation at 0.883. It is home to the Mexican Stock Exchange. Most of the large local and multinational corporations are headquartered here, mainly in the Polanco and Santa Fe districts. Climate Mexico City weather is divided in two seasons, the dry, from November to April, and the rainy from May to October. Spring months are warm, while the summer months can vary from light to heavy rains especially in the late afternoon. Fall and winter dawns get really cold but with an amazingly clear sky. Temperatures range from 0°C in late October, November, December and January mornings, to 32°C in March, April and May during mid-day highs. Air pollution Pollution over Mexico City. Mexico City air pollution index scale The city sits in a valley, formed by mountains and volcanoes, making this the worst of the environments to locate one of the largest cities in the world. In 1987, pollution was at its worst when one day thousands of birds appeared dead on the sidewalks of the city. Environmentalists attributed this to air pollution. This situation obliged authorities to implement measures to improve air quality, resulting in the transfer of most of heavy industry (glass, car and steel factories) and oil refineries outside of the city and the introduction of unleaded vehicle fuels. Today, the air quality is in much better shape and ozone and carbon dioxide levels are on the fall. Although the smog layer is visible nearly every day, its effects in terms of breathing and eye irritation should be barely noticeable and it should not be a worry for the visitor. Pollution is in maximun effect in the hot, dry season of spring, from late February to early May and there is a greenhouse effect that appears during winter from late November to early February. You can check the current air quality on the Atmospheric Monitoring System website [2]. This government body established an index denominated IMECA (Metropolitan Index for Air Quality) in order to make population aware of the current air pollution situation. When the index exceeds 170 points, a "Environmental pre-contingency" is issued and people are asked to refrain from performing open-air activities such as sports. In the case of an "Environmental Contingency", only vehicles with a zero or double zero emissions sticker can circulate. Earthquakes The catastrophic earthquake of 8.1 degrees richter that took place in the morning of September 19th 1985 and took the lives of between 9,000 and 30,000 people, remains fresh in the memory of the majority of Mexico City's inhabitants. Since the city was established in the dry bed of lake Texcoco and several geological faults that originate in the pacific coast reach the city, earthquakes are a common phenomena. Right after the 1985 earthquake many constructions were reinforced and new buildings are designed to meet structural criteria by law and no major building collapse has happened since, even after several strong earthquakes. You can check the latest earthquake activity at the National Earthquake Center [3] an institute of the National University (UNAM). Should you happen to be in the middle of an earthquake, remain calm and follow some simple rules: if you are indoors, stay under the doorways, move away of objects that can fall, and/or follow exit paths ("Ruta de Evacuación") out to the streets; if you are outdoors, move away from slopes or electrical wires towards open areas or marked "safe zones". People Upscale neighborhood west of the city. With a population of more than 20 million in the greater metropolitan area, you can expect to find all kinds of people in Mexico City, in terms of racial, sexual, political, cultural and wealth diversity. Citizens are mostly Mestizo (people of mixed Spanish and Amerindian racial background) and Criollo (people of unmixed Spanish racial background). Amerindian people constitute less than one percent of the city's population, but there are some who are still moving to the city in search of opportunities. As a big city, it is also the home of large foreign communities, like Cubans, Spaniards, Americans, Jews, Japanese, Chilean, Lebanese, and more recently Argentines and Koreans. Mexico City has a number of ethnic districts with restaurants and shops that cater to groups such as Chinese and Lebanese Mexicans. It is the temporary home to many expats too, working here for the many multinational companies operating in Mexico. Foreigners of virtually any ethnic background may not get a second look little attention if they dress conservatively and attempt to speak Spanish. Mexico City is one of the most liberal cities in Latin America. As such, this is generally a gay friendly city, particularly in the Zona Rosa District. Abortion on demand is also legal, as well as euthanasia and prostitution (the latter allowed only in designated districts). Costs Although Mexico City is considered an expensive city, your trip budget will depend on your lifestyle and way of traveling, as you can find cheap and expensive prices for almost everything. Public transportation is very cheap and there are many affordable places to eat. On the other hand you can find world-class hotels and fancy restaurants with higher prices. A daily backpacker budget for transportation and meals should range between 100 to 200 pesos a day (10 to 20 USD), using public transport and eating at street stands, while a more comfortable budget should range between 200 to 500 pesos a day (20 to 50 USD) using private taxis (taxi de sitio) and eating at decent sit-down restaurants. For those for whom money is not a problem, you can find plenty of outlets for your dollars, euros, pounds, yuan, etc. Addresses The addressing system is fairly simple, starting by street name, house number, colonia (neighborhood), city, state and postal code. A typical address could be something like Colima 15, Colonia Roma Norte, Mexico, Distrito Federal, 06760. However, the numbering tends to not be in the right order! Photography For the avid photographer, there are a few pointers to keep in mind. The city is paranoid about tripods. You are not allowed to use a tripod in any ticketed place, such as museums, the metro stations, architectural ruins, etc. You will be politely asked to hold your camera in your hands. Apparently, it has something to do with being a professional. However, you can sneak a few pictures with the tripod (lots of HDR opportunities and panoramas) and feign confusion each time you are stopped by a different authority. Compact Flash cards can be found at several different locations. Look for stores such as Radio Shack, Office Depot, Office Max or Wal-Mart. Prices tend to be on the high end, but they are affordable. You could also try some of the places that are dedicated to selling photographic equipment, they are easily identified because you will see the street signs with names such as Kodak or Fuji. You can print your photos at most of the major chains of pharmacies around town, look for Farmacias Benavides, Farmacias Guadalajara or Farmacias del Ahorro (with a white 'A' inside a red circle). Prices differ from store to store. Also, while near the Zocalo on the street Republica de Brasil, many people standing on the side of the sidewalk will verbally advertise "imprentas." They are offering printing services. For people who love to do street photography, a good place to start is in front of the Bellas Artes square, during afternoons. There is a smorgasbord of faces cutting across the square and perching on one of the benches for an hour will easily give you access to photography fodder. Many urchins and ethnic street dwellers have learned to ask for money before allowing you to shoot them. Sympathize and accept. It is worth it. Keep in mind some museums, like the Museum of National History in the Chapultepec, charge an extra fee for those with video cameras. Also in most museums, flash photography is not permitted. For the safety of you and your camera, be aware of your environment and don't wander around crowded public spaces or public transport with your new Nikon D-90 dangling from your neck. Talk Like the majority of Mexico, Spanish is the dominant language in Mexico City. English may be spoken in the city's affluent neighborhoods and tourist areas such as Polanco, Chapultepec, Satelite, and Santa Fe, as well as by ex pats and Americans working and living in the city, but knowing some Spanish is a necessity to truly enjoy this city as much of the city's population is monolingual. Get in By plane Benito Juarez International Airport (IATA: MEX) (ICAO: MMMX) Most travelers arrive to Mexico City by air, to the Benito Juárez International Airport [4], located in the eastern part of the city. There are frequent flights to and from most larger cities in the world, as Amsterdam, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Santiago de Chile, London, Paris, Madrid, Frankfurt, Chicago, Toronto and Tokyo. Some of the international airlines that operate regular flights to Mexico City include (as of April 2007): Aerolineas Argentinas, Aeromexico, Air Canada, Air France, Alaska Airlines [5], American Airlines, Avianca, British Airways, Continental Airlines, Copa, Cubana de Aviacion, Delta [6], Iberia, Japan Airlines, KLM, LAN, Lloyd Aereo Boliviano (recently grounded), Lufthansa, Mexicana, Northwest, TACA, Varig, Ocean Air, United Airlines and US Airways. The airport has a plane spotting area. To reach it, take the subway and go to the Terminal Aerea station. As of January 16, 2008, a new terminal, Terminal 2, opened at Benito Juarez. If you are flying in or out of the city check with your airline as to what terminal you should use for ticketing and check-in. Give yourself extra time to make your flight to avoid confusion. Arrival If you arrive on an international flight, after picking up your luggage you will go through Immigration, and then Customs. Make sure you fill in all forms prior to landing to make this an expedite process. Sometimes the airline will hand them out on the flight. There is a $300 Dollars duty allowance that include new clothing, tobacco and liquors. The Mexican customs law allows passengers to bring free of duties a laptop, an mp3 player, a digital camera, a tripod, a video camera and used clothing. You will also be required to fill out a Migratory Form for Foreign Tourist, Transmigrant, Business Visitor or Council Visitor which must be stamped by the customs officer, who will give you an obsolete number of days for your visa (up to three months). This form has a bar code on it and a blue stripe across the top saying "Estados Unidos Mexicanos." Be sure not to lose this form as without it, you will not be able to leave the country. If you lose or misplace it during the visit, you must visit the immigration office at the airport to fill out a new one. If you plead ignorance they may let it go, but otherwise there's a 440 peso fine. After going through customs you will pick up your luggage, then pass through screening. You will press a button for a red or green light. The red means they will search you, the green means you can go. The entire process, from when the plane arrives to when you are done with customs, usually takes about an hour. After completing customs you will go through large doors to the waiting area for international arrivals. Be prepared to see a lot of people in this area. It is a custom for families to pick up their loved ones at the airport and the hall is rather small for a city of its size. There are carriers who will offer to carry your luggage. This is a service authorized by the airport and is safe - they will be uniformed with white shirts, navy blue tie and dark blue pants, and will carry a wheelie (or keep it nearby) with the union logo on it. There is no fixed price for this service, but 15-25 pesos should be fine, unless you are traveling in a group or have a lot of bags. Currency conversion The airport offers the best rates for converting your currency. There are many currency changers, some offering better rates than others, or not charging a commission. The converter near Gate E1, in the arrival wing offers the best rate. Ground transportation Taxi— The airport offers a service of licensed and secure taxis known as Transportacion Terrestre [7]. These cabs are white and yellow with black airplane stickers on the doors. You should buy a ticket in the marked counters inside the airport. You can ask one of the wheelie guys for "Taxi Seguro", or "Boleto de Taxi" and he'll take you and your luggage to the Taxi counter. Be sure to get the detachable piece of the ticket back. Prices range from 5 to 25 US dollars for the taxi service, depending on the size of the car and the zone of the city you are going to. A drawing of a car on the ticket will tell you what type of car the ticket is valid for. Some ticket vendors are known to sell more expensive tickets for huge vans to single persons with moderate amounts of luggage. Be aware the airport is not located in the best area of the city, so it is not recommended for tourists to walk outside the airport terminal in search for cheaper taxi service unless you have pre-arranged your service. Definitely do not attempt this if you are not comfortable speaking Spanish. Despite this, an alternative Taxi Sitio (site) can be reached by using the overpass located outside of Gate D. Taxis here are about half the price of the official airport taxis and are considered secure - this is the Sitio that is set up for the airline employees. Metro— If you are looking for a more economical means of transportation and you're not carrying too much luggage, take the Metro (Subway). The Terminal Aerea station is next to the Domestic flights terminal 1, to the left when coming out from the international arrivals hall. It is a bit hard to find, so be prepared to do some detective work, and keep an eye out for the orange 1970s style M designating the entrance. The tickets cost 2 pesos each. Realize that the Metro has its own risks - pick pocketing is a moderate danger so be aware of your surroundings and keep an eye on your belongings, and don't take the Metro during rush hour unless you are especially fond of the sensation a sardine has in a tin. When you arrive at terminal 2 there is no metro station. You have to transfer to terminal 1 first. During rush hours, the first two cars are reserved for only women and children, and there is always a policeman checking that no man hops into those wagons. It is not compulsory for women to travel separately if they are accompanied by men or if they don't wish to travel in those wagons. Licenciado Adolfo López Mateos International Airport This airport (IATA: TLC) (ICAO: MMTO) is in the City of Toluca 50 kilometers southwest of Mexico City and recently transformed itself from a general aviation airport into the hub of several domestic low-cost carriers such as Interjet and Volaris which serve destinations as Monterrey, Cancún, Guadalajara, Tijuana and many other Mexican cities. As of September 2009, Toluca is served internationally by Continental Airlines from Houston as well as by Volaris from Los Angeles and Oakland. Reaching the Toluca airport is not easy since you will need to drive your own car or hire a taxi which could be expensive.The best transportation from and to Toluca´s Airport is Caminante that has the biggest fleet of taxis at the best price and it also includes deluxe Mercedes Benz vans. Volaris offers free airport shuttle from its Santa Fe office in Vasco de Quiroga Avenue, while Interjet offers shuttle , that are property of Caminante, from several hotels around the city, including the Santa Fe Sheraton hotel. Depending on your overall trip, it might also be worth considering flying to nearby cities as Cuernavaca (CVJ) and Puebla (PBC), however reaching Mexico City from these places could be quite tiresome and expensive. By bus Although most of foreign travelers will reach Mexico City by air, it is also possible to arrive by bus. Greyhound offers several connecting routes from the United States and it is possible to buy one single ticket from many major cities in the U.S. to Mexico. Traveling by bus in Mexico is comfortable compared to other countries, since many Mexicans used to travel by bus until the recent introduction of several low-cost airlines. The city has 4 major bus stations: Terminal Autobuses del Norte, Av. 100 Metros 4907, Colonia Magdalena de las Salinas, tel 5587 1552. Metro station stop "Autobuses del Norte" (Line 5, yellow). Most buses departing to and arriving from bordering towns with the U.S. operate from this terminal such as Nuevo Laredo, Matamoros, Reynosa, even Ciudad Juarez. Other destinations that depart from this terminal: Acapulco, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, San Miguel de Allende, Puerto Vallarta, Monterrey, Leon, Queretaro, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, Hermosillo, Tijuana. Overall, buses are bound to northern Mexico. Terminal de Autobuses del Poniente, Av. Sur 122, Colonia Real del Monte. Metro station "Observatorio" (Line 1, pink). Also known as Terminal de Autobuses Observatorio. Usually used for destinations in the western part of Mexico such as Collima, Manzanillo, Puerto Vallarta, Toluca. Terminal de Autobuses del Sur "Taxqueña", Av. Taxqueña 1320, Colonia Campestre Churubusco, Metro station "Taxqueña"(Line 2, blue). This station is used for destinations in southern Mexico such as: Acapulco, Ixtapa, Oaxaca, Tepoztlan, Puebla. Terminal de Autobuses del Oriente "TAPO", Calzada Ignacio Zaragoza 200, Colonia 10 de Mayo. Metro Station "San Lazaro" (Line 1, pink). Serving also destinations in the south and the gulf of Mexico such as: Campeche, Cancun, Merida, Villahermosa, Veracruz, Jalapa. Some of the most common bus lines in Mexico: Caminante ADO Estrella Roja Omnibus de Mexico ETN Real first class buses UNO By train Passenger train services unfortunately ceased operating in Mexico some ten years ago, and only freight trains ride to and around Mexico City. Nowadays only one train route is operating. This is the Chihuahua Pacífico route between Chihuahua and Los Mochis, crossing the Sierra. Get around Mexico City's Metro streches northeast into Ecatepec, State of Mexico. Mexico City is a huge place, but driving is definitely not a way to see it even if tourist attractions are scattered throughout the city. A good way to plan your trip is to stop by Guia Roji [8] to identify the location of the "Colonias" (neighborhoods) you intend to visit. You may also try Google Maps and Map24 [9], to find addresses and even look for directions. Mexico City has several public transport alternatives. Metro is reliable and runs underground, the city government operates the RTP bus system and Electric Trolley buses. There are also plenty of franchised private buses which are less reliable and safe because of their driving habits. And finally thousands of taxis, many of them old Volkswagen bugs in their famous green paint scheme and called verditos, or little green ones. By metro Mexico City Metro Officially named Sistema de Transporte Colectivo, but known simply as Metro [10][11], it is one of the largest and most used subway systems in the world, comprised by 11 different lines that measure more than 170 km and carry 4.4 million people every day. You'll quickly see how busy it is, particularly during the day: trains are often filled to significantly over capacity, and sometimes it will be hot and uncomfortable. Despite the close quarters, it's relatively quick and efficient, especially as an alternative to taxis during rush hours when the streets are essentially parking lots, and affordable (tickets for one trip with unlimited transfers within the system cost 2 pesos). Trains run every couple of minutes, so if you just miss it, you won't have long to wait until another arrives, and the Metro can be the quickest way to travel longer distances within the city. Stations usually have food stalls inside and outside the entrances, and many have city-sponsored exhibits and artwork on display, so it's good even for a look around. Operating hours are from 5AM to midnight on weekdays (starts at 6AM on Saturday and 7AM on Sunday), so if your plans will keep you out beyond midnight, be sure to have alternate means of transport. Although the Metro lacks informational signs in English, the system was originally designed with illiteracy in mind, so finding your way around should not be a problem. Lines are defined by number but also by a color, and that color runs as a thematic band across the entire station and along the entire route, so you always know what line you are on. Stations are identified by name but also by a pictorial icon that represents that area in some way. However, even with this user-friendly approach, entire maps of the Metro system are not posted everywhere that you'd like. They're usually only near ticket booths; there are no maps on the trains and only rarely posted on the platforms, so work out your route before going through the turnstiles, and have a Metro map on you. Trains and platforms do have a line diagram with icons and transfer points for easy reference. Some lines run through more tourist-related spots than others and will become very familiar to you after a while. Line 1 (pink) runs through many tourist spots, such as Centro Historico (Salto del Agua station), the Chapultepec Forest (Chapultepec Station), Condesa and Roma neighborhoods (Insurgentes and Sevilla stations) and the Northwest Bus Station (Observatorio station). Line 2 (blue) runs through the Centro Historico (Allende, Zocalo and Bellas Artes stations) and reaches the South Bus Station (Tasqueña). Line 7 (orange) runs through many touristic spots such as the Chapultepec Forest (Auditorio Station) and the Polanco neighborhood (Polanco Station). Line 9 (brown) runs near the Condesa neighborhood (Chilpancingo). Line 3 (green) runs near Coyoacan (Coyoacan and Miguel Angel de Quevedo stations) and also near the City University (Copilco and Ciudad Universitaria stations). If traveling to and from the airport, you'll use Line 5 (yellow) to connect to the Mexico City International Airport (Terminal Aerea station, not Hangares). Here are a few of the commonly-used Metro signs translated into English: Taquilla - Ticket booth Entrada - Entrance Salida - Exit No Pase - Do not enter Andenes - Train platforms (both directions) Correspondencia - Line transfer As you enter a Metro station, look for the ticket booth. There might be a short queue for tickets, and to avoid having to always stand in line, many people buy a small handful of tickets at a time. A sign is posted by the ticket window that shows how much it would cost for any number of tickets. Once you approach the agent, simply drop some money into the tray and announce (in Spanish) how many tickets you would like ("uno" for $2, "cinco" for $10, "diez" for $20, and so on). You do not need to say anything about where you are going, since fares are the same for everywhere in the system. Once you have your ticket (boleto) it is time to go through the turnstiles (but make sure to confirm your route on a map first!). The stiles are clearly marked for exit or entry but if you are confused, simply follow the crowd. Insert the ticket into the slot (it does not matter which direction is up or forward) and a small display will flash, indicating you may proceed. You won't get the ticket back. A few frequent Metro users use keycards instead of tickets, so if you see any turnstiles marked with "solo tarjeta" that means the ticket reader is broken; just move to another turnstile. Past the turnstiles, signs that tell you where to go depending on your direction within the Line are usually clearly marked, as are signs that tell you where to transfer to a different Line. There is no standard station layout, but they are all designed to facilitate vast amounts of human traffic, so following the crowd works well, as long you double check the signs to make sure the crowd is taking you in the same direction. On the platform, try to stand near the edge. During rush hours when it can get pretty crowded, there is sometimes a mad rush on and off the train. Although for the most part people are respectful and usually let departing passengers off first, train doors are always threatening to close and that means you need to be moderately aggressive if you don't want to get left behind. If you're traveling in a group, this could mean having to travel separately. At the ends of the platform, the train is usually less crowded, so you could wait there, but during rush hours some busier stations reserve those sections of platform exclusively for women and children for their safety. While on the train, you will see a steady stream of people walking through the carriages announcing their wares for sale. Act as if you are used to them (that is, ignore them, unless they need to pass you). Most often you'll see the city's blind population make their living by selling pirate music CD's, blaring their songs through amplifiers carried in a backpack. There are people who "perform" (such as singing, or repeatedly somersaulting shirtless onto a pile of broken glass) and expect a donation. There are also people who hand out candy or snacks between stops, and if you eat it or keep it you are expected to pay for it; if you don't want it, they'll take it back at the next stop. It can be quite amusing, or sad at times, but don't laugh or be disrespectful... this is how they make a living. The best thing to do is observing how others around you behave, but you can usually just avoid eye contact with these merchants and they will leave you alone. If the merchants weren't enough, the trains are usually just crowded places to be. You will usually not get seats if you are traveling through the city center during the day, and even if you do, it's considered good manners to offer your seat to the aged, pregnant or disabled, as all cars have clearly marked handicap seats. In keeping with the mad rush on and off the train, people will move toward the exits before the train stops, so let them through and feel free to do the same when you need to (a "con permiso" helps, but body language speaks the loudest here). A few words of warning: there have been incidences of pickpocketing. Keep your belongings close to you; if you have bags, close them and keep them in sight. As long as you are alert and careful you won't have any problems. Women have complained of being groped on extremely crowded trains; this is not a problem on designated women's wagons, or any other time than rush hour. If theft or any other sort of harassment do occur, you can stop the train and attract the attention of the authorities by pulling on alarms near the doors, which are labeled "señal de alarma." When exiting, follow the crowd through signs marked Salida. Many stations have multiple exits to different streets (or different sides of streets, marked with a cardinal direction) and should have posted road maps that show the immediate area with icons for banks, restaurants, parks and so forth. Use these to orient yourself and figure out where you need to go. By bus Mexico City RTP Bus There are two kinds of buses. The first, are full-sized buses operated by the City Government known as RTP [12] and cost $2 anywhere you go. Make sure to pay with exact change as they don't give change back. The second kind of buses are known as "Microbuses" or "Peseros". These buses are private-run and come in small and bigger sizes, all rather ominous looking. Peseros cost 3.00 pesos for shorter trips, 3.50 for 6-12 km trips and 4 pesos for 12+ km trips. Full-sized private buses are 3.50 pesos for shorter trips, and 4.50 for longer trips. Mexico City Microbus Both type of buses usually stop at the same places, which are totally random and unmarked stops. Routes are also very complex and flexible, so be sure to ask someone, perhaps the driver, if the bus even goes to your destination, before getting on. Also, though the locals hang off the sides and out the doors, it is generally not recommended for novices. Riding RTP buses is probably a safer and more comfortable way than the private franchised and smaller microbuses who are known to have terrible driving habits. Turibus Buses can be packed during rush hours, and you have to pay attention to your stops (buses make very short stops if there's just one person getting off, so be ready), but they are very practical when your route aligns with a large avenue. There's usually a button above or close to the rear door to signal that you're getting off; if there isn't one, it's not working, or you can't get to it, shouting Bajan! (pronounced "BAH-han") in a loud and desperate voice usually works. By metrobus Mexico City Metrobus Established in June 2005, the Metrobús operates in a confined lane along Insurgentes Avenue. Plans exist for additional routes. It costs 4.5 pesos to ride during the day, but a card must be bought in advance (11 pesos). After 11:30 or so, it's 5 pesos. There are stops approximately every 500m. Expect it to be crowded around the clock, but its a great way to get up and down this major thoroughfare. By trolley bus "Trolebuses" [13] are operated by the Electric Transport Services. There are 15 Trolley bus lines that spread around for more than 400 km. They usually do not get as crowded as regular buses, and they are quite comfortable and reliable. They can be a little slower than regular buses, since they are unable to change lanes as quickly. There is a flat fare of 2 pesos, and bus drivers do not give out change. By light rail The Tren Ligero [14] is operated by Electric Transport Services and consists of one single line that runs south of the city, connecting with Metro station Tasqueña (Line 2, blue; alternatively you may see it spelled as Taxqueña). For tourists, it is useful if you plan to visit "Xochimilco" or the Azteca stadium. The rate for a single ride is 2 pesos, and while the ticketing system works very similarly to the Metro, the tickets are not the same. You must purchase light rail tickets separately; they are sold at most stations along the line. By taxi Mexico City taxi There are more than 250,000 registered cabs in the city and they are one of the most efficient ways to get around. The prices are low, a fixed fee of about 6 pesos to get into the cab, and about 0.7 pesos per quarter kilometer or 45 seconds thereafter, for the normal taxis (taxi libre). The night rates, supposedly between 11PM at night and 6AM in the morning are about 20% higher. Some taxis "adjust" their meters to run more quickly, but in general, cab fare is cheap, and it's usually easy to find a taxi. At night, and in areas where there are few taxis, cab drivers will often not use the meter, but rather quote you a price before you get in. This price will often be high, however, you can haggle. They will tell you that their price is good because they are "safe". If you don't agree on the price, don't worry, another cab will come along. Catching cabs in the street can be dangerous, since free-range cabs are not accountable to anyone. Taxi robberies, so-called "express kidnappings", where the victim is robbed and then taken on a trip to various ATMs to max out their credit cards, do occur, but there are some general precautions that will minimize the risk: Taxis have special license plates. The registration number starts with "L" or "A" for free-roaming taxis, and with "S" for base taxis (registered taxis based on a certain spot, called "sitios"). Base taxis are safer. The taxi license should be displayed inside the taxi; usually it is mounted somewhere above the windshield. Check that the photo of the driver on the license is of the actual driver. Make a point of looking at it. Look for the meter. Without it they will be more likely to rip you off. If you are nervous, take sitio taxis only. These may be a bit more expensive, but are well worth the expense. If you are safety-conscious or require additional comfort, consider radio taxis, which can be called by phone, and are extremely reliable and safe, although a bit pricier than other taxis. Most restaurants, hotels, etc. have the number for radio taxis. Radio taxis will usually give you the price for the trip on the phone when you order them. Radio taxis charge more than regular taxis, but are available all night. Hotel taxis will be significantly more expensive than site or radio taxis. As with absolutely everything else, risks are greater at night. At night radio taxis are recommended. Mexico City is so large, and many street names so common, that cab drivers are highly unlikely to know where to go when you give only a name or address of your destination. Always include either the name of the colonia or the district (i.e. "Zona Rosa"), as well as any nearby landmarks or cross streets. You will probably be asked to give directions throughout or at least near the tail end of the journey; if either your Spanish or your sense of direction is poor, carry a map and be prepared to point. By Turibus The Turibus [15] is a sightseeing double-decker hop-in hop-off bus that is a good alternative to see the city if you don't have too much time. The one-day ticket costs $120 pesos (around USD $11) and its route includes the Zona Rosa, Chapultepec Park, Polanco, Condesa, Roma and the Historic Center. There is a secondary route which just started in late May 2007, and runs from Fuente de la Cibeles in Condesa to Coyoacan and "Xochimilco". Your ticket should be valid for both routes. If you get lost If you get absolutely lost and you are far away from your hotel, hop into a pesero (mini bus) or bus that takes you to a Metro station [16]; most of them do. Look for the sign with the stylized metro "M" in the front window. From there and using the wall maps you can get back to a more familiar place. By car Freeway traffic before rush hour around El Predregal zone in the southwest region. Driving around by car is the least advised way to visit the city due to the complicated road structure and the 3.5 million vehicles moving around the city. Traffic jams are almost omnipresent on weekdays, and driving from one end of the city to the other could take you between 2 to 4 hours at peak times. The condition of pavement in freeways such as Viaducto and Periferico is good, however in avenues, streets and roads varies from fair to poor since most streets have fissures, bumps and holes. Most are paved with asphalt and only until recently some have been paved using concrete. Since the city grew without planned control, the street structure resembles a labyrinth in many areas. Also, traffic 'laws' are complex and rarely followed, so driving should be left to only the most adventurous and/or foolhardy. Driving can turn into a really challenging experience if you don't know precisely well where are you going. There is only one company that has been able to map the entire city, Guia Roji [17]. Shortcuts are complicated and often involve about six to eight turns. Street parking (Estacionamiento in Spanish) is scarce around the City and practically nonexistent in crowded areas. Where available expect to pay between $12 to $18 pesos an hour while most of hotels charge between $25 to $50 pesos an hour. Some areas of the city such as Zona Rosa, Chapultepec, Colonia Roma and Colonia Condesa have parking meters on the sidewalks which are about $10 pesos an hour and are free on weekends. It is possible to park in other streets without meters but is likely there will be a "parking vendor" (Franelero in Spanish) which are not authorized by the city, but will "take care of your car". Expect to pay between $10 to $20 pesos to these fellows, some of them will "charge" at your arrival, the best advice is to pay if you want to see your car in good shape when you come back. With some seven million cars, evening rush hour in Mexico City is no different than any other major city. Hoy No Circula (Today You Do Not Circulate) is an extremely important anti-traffic and anti-pollution program that all visitors including foreigners must take into consideration when wishing to drive through Mexico City and nearby Mexico State with their foreign-plated vehicles, as they are not immune to these restrictions. It limits vehicle circulation to certain restricted hours during the day depending on the last digit of your plate number (plates with all letters are automatically assigned a digit). Currently, Mexico City, but not the State of Mexico, offers a special pass good for 2 weeks, that allows someone with a foreign-plated vehicle to be exempt from these restrictions. [18] Excellent details of how the program works for locals and foreigners is found at the following link: [19]. The visitor should take into consideration the following tips when driving: avenues have preference over streets and streets over closed streets. Continuous right turn even when traffic light red is allowed. Seat belts are mandatory for both front seats. If you're stopped by a police car, it is likely they will try to get money out from you. It is up to you if you accept to do so, the latest government sponsored trend is to refuse giving them anything. See Santa Fe Downtown Mexico City has been an urban area since the pre-Columbian 12th century, and the city is filled with historical buildings and landmarks from every epoch since then. It is also known as the City of Palaces, because of the large number of stately buildings, especially in the Centro. In addition, Mexico is the city with the largest number of museums in the world (without taking into account art galleries), with New York #2, London #3 and Toronto #4. Landmarks Plaza de la Constitucion, commonly known as Zócalo in the Centro Historico (Historic Downtown) is one of the largest squares in the world, surrounded by historic buildings, including the City Hall and the Cathedral. La Catedral the biggest in the Americas, fullfilled of gold. Angel de la Independencia or simply known as "El Angel" is a monument in Reforma Avenue and Florencia Street, near Zona Rosa. Basilica de Guadalupe, Catholicism's holiest place in the Americas, and the destination of pilgrims from all over the world, especially during the yearly celebration on the 12th of December. It is the shrine that guards the shroud of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and is in the northermost part of the city. Ciudad Universitaria— The main campus of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, [20] the National University of Mexico. Located in Insurgentes Sur Avenue, it is one of the world's largest universities, with more than 270,000 students every semester. In 2007 it was declared a UNESCO world heritage place. Coyoacán— historic counterculture district which was home to Frida Kahlo, Leon Trotsky, and Diego Rivera, amongst others. Plaza Garibaldi-Mariachi— The square is surrounded by cafés and restaurants much favored by tourists, and in these and in the square itself groups of musicians play folk music. Most of these groups are "mariachis" from Jalisco, dressed in Charro costume and playing trumpets, violins, guitars and the guitarrón or bass guitar. Payment is expected for each song, but it is also possible to arrange for a longer performances. People set up lemonade stand style bars in the evening to sell you cheap cocktails while you listen. A visit to Mexico is not complete until you experience the fantastic Mariachi Bands, but the neighborhood is a bit sketchy. Ciudadela crafts market— The Ciudadela is a Mexican crafts market where cultural groups from around Mexico distribute their crafts to other parts of the country and the world. Alameda and Paseo de la Reforma— Paseo de la Reforma ("Reform Avenue") is a 12 km long grand avenue and park in Mexico City. The name commemorates the liberal reforms of Mexican President Benito Juarez. Cineteca Nacional (National Film Archive)— It was the first to screen art films, and is known for its forums, retrospectives and homages. It has four screening rooms, a video and a film library, as well as a cafeteria. Torre Latinoamericana for stunning views of the city. Its central location, height (183 m or 597 ft; 45 stories), and history make it one of Mexico City's most important landmarks. Torre Mayor— It's the new and highest tower in town, and highest skyscraper in Latin America, and good for more impressive views of the city. Mexico City National Cemetery[21] - 31 Virginia Fabregas, Colonia San Rafael. Open daily except for December 25 and January 1; 9AM to 5PM. The cemetery is the final resting place for 750 unknown American soldiers lost during the Mexican-American War between 1846 and 1848. Another 813 Americans are also interred here. Free. Parks Mexico City is full of various plazas and parks scattered through every neighborhood, but the following are some of the biggest, prettiest, most interesting, or best-known. Chapultepec Park and Zoo Paseo de la Reforma. Is a large park of 6 square Km. in the middle of the City host to many attractions, including the city Zoo and several museums such as the Modern Art Museum, the Museum of Anthropology, the Children's Museum (Museo del Papalote), the Technology Museum, the Natural History Museum and the National Museum also known as Castillo de Chapultepec, the former residence of the Austrian Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg. Nearby Metro station: "Auditorio" (Line 7, Orange). "Xochimilco", a vast system of waterways and flower gardens dating back to Aztec times in the south of the city where tourists can enjoy a trip in the "trajineras" (vividly-colored boats). Trajineras pass each other carrying Mariachi or marimba bands, and floating bars and taquerias. "Xochimilco" is the last remnant of how Mexico City looked when the Spanish arrived to Mexico City in 1521 and it was declared a world heritage site by UNESCO in 1987. Plaza Garibaldi-Mariachi, in Mexico City is surrounded by bars and restaurants that cater to Mariachi Band enthusiasts. It is where bands come to do public auditions outside, on weekend evenings, simply play for pleasure, or for whoever may pay them. A visit to Mexico is not complete until you experience the fantastic Mariachi Bands. You can also find a great "pulqueria" here (a bar that sells pulque, an interesting fermented maguey cactus drink). Parque Mexico and Parque España are two adjacent parks in the Colonia Condesa, which used to be part of a race track. Now they are popular for an evening stroll, and sometimes house outdoor exhibitions or concerts, and are surrounded by cool cafes and bars. Viveros de Coyoacán are a large expanse of greenery and trails that used to be divided into privately owned gardens and farm plots, but is now a public park popular with people joggers and amblers alike. Museums Mexico is the city with the largest number of museums in the world, to name some of the most popular:
         
         "Museo Nacional de Antropología" (MNA, or National Museum of Anthropology) is a national museum of Mexico. Located in Paseo de la Reforma and Calle Mahatma Gandhi within Chapultepec Park. One of the best museums worldwide over, it was built in late 1960’s and designed by Pedro Ramírez Vázquez. Notice the huge, impressive fountain in the courtyard. It gathers the best collection of sculptures, jewels and handcrafts from ancient Mexican cultures, and could take many hours to see everything. They also have interesting international special exhibits.
         "Plaza de las Tres Culturas in Tlatelolco" has examples of modern, colonial, and pre-Columbian architecture, all around one square.
         "Museum of Modern Art Chapultepec" . Here you will find paintings from Frida Kahlo, Leonora Carrington and Remedios Varo, as well as a sculpture garden.
         "Dolores Olmedo Museum" "Xochimilco". An art philanthropist left her former home, the grand Hacienda La Noria, as a museum featuring the works of her friend Diego Rivera. At least 137 of his works are displayed here, as well as 25 paintings of Frida Kahlo. The premises also feature beautiful gardens full of peacocks and a weird species of Aztec dog.
         "Palacio de Bellas Artes" Centro. A concert hall and an arts center, it houses some of Mexico's finest murals and the Art Deco interior is worth seeing alone.
         "Rufino Tamayo Museum Chapultepec" . Contains the works of Mexican painter, Rufino Tamayo. José Luis Cuevas Museum Centro. Opened in 1992 and is filled with about 1,000 paintings, drawings, and sculptures from notorious artist, Jose Cuevas.
         "Castle Chapultepec" National History Museum in Chapultepec's Castle Chapultepec. The Museum's nineteen rooms contain, in addition to a collection of pre-Columbian material and reproductions of old manuscripts, a vast range of exhibits illustrating the history of Mexico since the Spanish conquest.
         "Papalote" , children's Museum Chapultepec. If you've got kids, they'll love it! Bright, colorful, and filled with educational experiences for children of all ages.
         "Universum (National University's Museum) Coyoacán" . A science museum maintained by UNAM, the largest university in Latin America. Take some time to wander around the Campus.
         "Casa Mural Diego Rivera Centro" . Contains murals of acclaimed artist, Diego Rivera.
         National Palace (Zocalo) Centro. You can see some impressive Diego Rivera frescoes. You'll need to carry some sort of ID in order to enter the building.
         "San Idelfonso Museuma" Centro. There are some of Orozco's best frescoes. The temporary exhibitions are usually very good.
         "Franz Meyer Museum" Centro. Display the collections of Franz Mayer, it holds Mexico's largest decorative art collection and also hosts temporary exhibits in the fields of design and photography.
         "Mexico City's Museum" Centro. Great place to learn about Mexico City's eclectic history.
         "Templo Mayor Museum (Zocalo)" Centro. Contains the ruins and last remnants of the Aztec empire. attached to the huge archeological site where the foundations of the temple were accidentally found in the 1970s.
         "San Carlos Museum Centro" . The San Carlos Musuem holds some of Mexico's best paintings and exhibit 15th and 16th century paintings.
         "National Art Museum Centro" . The National Art Museum, houses a rich collection of Mexican art ranging from the 16th to the first half of the 20th centuries.
         "National History Museum Chapultepec" . Displays a vast range of exhibits illustrating the history of Mexico since the Spanish conquest.
         "Frida Kahlo Museum" , Coyoacán Also called Casa Azul, it is the former house of the painter since she was born to her death, and full of some of her works, and many of her personal artifacts.
         "Anahuacalli Museum" , Coyoacán An impressive modern representation of Aztec architecture, it houses Diego Rivera’s collection of Aztec and Mayan sculptures.
         "Leon Trotsky Museum Coyoacán" This was the house where Trotsky lived in exile during the last 1.5 years of his life, and was murdered by one of Stalin's agents. Guided tours are provided by members of the Workers/ Revolutionary Party.
         
         Do NASCAR race at the Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez. As the world's largest city, Mexico City offers something for everyone and for every budget. Attractions in Mexico City focus less on lazing on the beach (there are no beaches in Mexico City!) and more on exploring the culture and urban culture of Mexico. The typical "must-see" sites for the foreign visitor are the sites of interest in and around Centro Historico and Chapultepec Park, a visit to the ruins of Teotihuacan in the outskirts of the City and probably a visit to "Xochimilco", though there are many other things to see if you have time to really explore. Seasonal Celebrations Independence Day "Yell"— In the evening of September 15th, the President of the Country (or the City Mayor) salutes the crowds from the presidential balcony in the National Palace located in the Constitution Square (Zocalo)and shouts the famous "Viva Mexico". The Zocalo, (as well as the rest of the city) is decorated with ornaments and lights. This is an incredible expression of Mexican patriotism combined with a party mood. Expect big crowds with a big revelery. Independence Parade— In the morning of September 16th, there is a military parade that runs across Paseo de la Reforma, turns right at Juarez Avenue which later becomes Madero Street and ends at the Zocalo. Some 15,000 to 30,000 soldiers of the Mexican Army, Navy and Air Force march through the streets displaying its equipment and weapons. Day of the Dead November 1-2. Mexicans are one of the few countries in the world that celebrate this day (Dia de los Muertos), in which people go to the cemeteries to offer tribute to their departed ones, and decorate their graves with marigolds and bright colors. But this is not a sad celebration, on the contrary, people give family and friends candy treats in the shape of skulls and bones made of sugar and chocolate, as well as delicious bread called "Pan de Muerto". Don't miss a visit to a public market to find these delicacies, and watch out for the parades to and from the local cemetaries. Wise Men's day January 6. Most Mexican kids receive toys from the Three Wise Men (Reyes Magos). This is a celebration that pays homage to the aforementioned Bible story. To celebrate it the family gather to eat the "Rosca de Reyes", a sort of bundt cake filled with prizes. Amusement parks Six Flags Mexico[22] Carretera Picacho al Ajusco #1500 Col. Héroes de Padierna. Southwest of Mexico City, it is the largest amusement park in Latin America and the only Six Flags park outside the U.S. and Canada. The park is fitted with several million-dollar attractions, including Batman the Ride and not for the faint-hearted Medusa Roller Coaster. Entrance Fees: Adults $285 pesos, Children $170 pesos. La Feria de Chapultepec, Circuito Bosque de Chapultepec Segunda Seccion. Features the first roller-coaster in the country, a must-ride for roller coaster fans, and many other attractions nearby, including a train, paddle boats, and a zoo. Open Tuesday-Sunday 10AM-6PM. Entrance $79.90 pesos (access to all attractions). Car races Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez [23] Cd. Deportiva de la Magdalena Mixiuhca. Río Piedad avenue and Río Churubusco, tel 55983316. The race track is next to the "Palacio de los Deportes" (Sports Palace). Metro Station "Ciudad Deportiva" (Line 9 Brown). Built in 1962, it was Mexico City's F1 racing track until 1992 when the Mexico Grand Prix was cancelled. Ayrton Sena and Alain Prost won the prix in this track in the late 80's and early 90's. This 4.4km long race track still holds the NASCAR race every year and in 2007 it was one of the stops for the A1 - Grand Prix racing Sport events If you're into sports, then Mexico City has plenty to offer. Soccer is the national sport and Mexicans go crazy about it. The city was host to two FIFA world cups, one in 1970 and the other in 1986. Another important sport in Mexico City is baseball, with many Mexicans playing professionally in the US. The city has been the only Latin American host to an Olympiade in 1968, when the majority of the city's sport facilities were built. Estadio Azteca [24] Calzada de Tlalpan 3465, Colonia Ursula Coapa. The biggest soccer stadium in the world, built in 1966 for the 1968 Olympic Games with a full capacity of 129,300 seats. It's the home of one of the best soccer clubs in Mexico: Club America. It also serves as venue for concerts and for the first NFL regular-season game outside the United States. To reach the Estadio Azteca, you can use the light rail train line that runs to "Xochimilco" and hop off at the "Estadio Azteca" station. Prices for soccer usually start from 20 pesos up to 600 for field level seats. Beware of resellers, as they will often sell fake tickets. Estadio Olimpico de Ciudad Universitaria Insurgentes Sur Avenue, Ciudad Universitaria. Simply known as "Estadio de C.U." Located south of the city, this was where the opening ceremony of the 1968 Olympic Games took place with a full capacity of 72,000 seats. It is home for the "Pumas" soccer team of the National University (UNAM). Today it is host to several sport games, mainly soccer and American football. To reach the stadium by public transport you can use the Metro and hop off at the Universidad station (Line 3, green), and hop in one of the free shuttle buses that run around the University circuit (only in weekdays). Foro Sol— Intended to serve as baseball stadium, it is also a venue for many concerts. Palacio de los Deportes Viaducto Piedad and Rio Churubusco. Metro station: Ciudad Deportiva (Line 9). Built for the 1968 Olympic Games, with a full capacity of 22,000, it hosts several indoor sports, including NBA games once a year. Venue for several concerts, circus, expos. Estadio Azul— Host to the Cruz Azul soccer team. Lucha libre Arena Mexico [25], is home to Mexican free wrestling, which is a favorite pastime of Mexicans due to its affordable and entertaining nature. It is mostly a show rather than a sport, but it has been very popular among foreigners lately. Doctor Lavista 189, Colonia de los Doctores. You can enter through Avenida Chapultepec. It's very close to Zona Rosa and Avenida Insurgentes. Nowadays there is a new option that offers the best available tickets for the show due to the high demand for tickets, safe transportation and an English speaking guide who will stay with you during the show. It is an easy, though less cheap, way to check out Lucha Libre [26] Horse racing Hipodromo de las Americas [27] Industria Militar Avenue Colonia Lomas de Sotelo. Its a thoroughbred and quarter-horse race track. There are races nearly every day, the complex has different zones for different budgets including the original club-house and grandstand, with seating for 20,000 persons and several restaurants. Betting starts as low as $10 pesos. Alternative Travel Journeys Beyond the Surface [28] is an alternative-travel agency offering customized day trips to help you get to know any aspect of Mexico City that interests you. They accompany you so you have a safe yet challenging day. Their specialty is to take you to places that tourists generally do not get to see, to enable you to get a glimpse of what it is like to live in this city. Learn Museo Universitario de Arte Contemporaneo, UNAM. Like many other things in the country, Mexico City has the largest concentration of universities and colleges, starting with the UNAM, one of the finest in Latin America and the oldest university in the American continent, founded in 1551. Some of the most renowned universities in the city include: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico [29] Commonly known as UNAM, located in the south of the City mainly in Ciudad Universitaria, is a public university with a student population of more than 300,000. Instituto Tecnologico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey [30] simply known as "Tec" is a branch of the famous private institute in Monterrey. Instituto Politecnico Nacional [31] Public university dedicated mainly to engineering and research. Universidad Panamericana [32]Private catholic university that holds one of the best business schools in the world: IPADE located in the seventeenth century Hacienda de San Antonio Clavería. Universidad Iberoamericana [33] Private university of Jesuit origin. Instituto Tecnológico Autonomo de Mexico [34] Private university. Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana [35] Commonly known as UAM, a public university with four campuses citywide. Universidad Tecnológica de Mexico [36] Private university. Universidad del Valle de Mexico [37] Private, a branch of Laureate International Universities. Universidad de Las Américas [www.udla.mx] The first private university in México Universidad Anahuac Private university. Universidad La Salle Private catholic university. You can learn Spanish in Mexico City as there are various schools offering courses for foreigners, for example: Centro de Enseñanza de Lenguas Extranjeras Known as CELE, is a faculty of the National University (UNAM) and is probably the most renowned, located south of the city in Ciudad Universitaria. [38] Center for International Education, La Salle (CIEL) Academia Hispano México, S.A. de C.V. CIB Centro de Idiomas Bravo Work Mexico has very strict immigration laws. In order to work you should obtain a permit known as FM2 or FM3 which is very hard to get unless you're marrying a Mexican citizen or you are an expat working for a multinational company. Most foreigners working without a permit perform jobs such as language teachers, waiters or salesmen. Others own a restaurant or shop. If you're working without a permit and an immigration officer finds out, it could mean a fine, deportation or spending some time in a detention facility of the National Immigration Institute. Buy Mexico City is famous among Mexicans for its huge malls, streets like Presidente Mazaryk offer haute couture stores. Shopping Districts Polanco— Upscale shopping and dining district centered around Presidente Masaryk and Campos Eliseos streets. It also has several shopping malls. Altavista— San Angel upscale shopping street. Condesa— Trendy district full with alternative stores and boutiques. Centro Historico— The city's oldest shopping district, you can find almost anything here. The old department stores are clustered around 20 de Noviembre street. Pino Suarez— There is a lot of youth-minded fashion going on here. Most of it is a knock-off of something else but at such low prices who can complain? There is a very large indoor market near the metro stop (Pino Saurez, on the pink line) that has a ton of clothing, shoes, and food vendors. Mexico City is a huge city, so all individual listings should be moved to the appropriate district articles, and this section should contain a brief overview. Please help to move listings if you are familiar with this city. Shopping Centers American-style shopping malls appeared in Mexico City by the late 1960’s and are now are spread all over the metropolitan area. Here you will find most of the fashion malls sorted by area. Central Reforma 222, Paseo de la Reforma 222, Juárez Plaza Insurgentes, San Luis Potosí 214, Roma Plaza Galerías Parque Delta, Cuauhtemoc 462, Narvarte Metrópoli Patriotismo, Patriotismo 229, San pedro de los Pinos North Parque Lindavista, Riobamba 289, Lindavista Plaza Lindavista, Montevideo 363, Lindavista Plaza Satélite, Circuito Centro Comercial 2251, Ciudad satélite Mundo E, periférico Norte 1007, Santa Mónica La Cúspide West Antara Polanco; Ejército Nacional 843, Polanco Moliere dos22; Moliere 222, Polanco Pabellón Polanco; ejército Nacional 980, Polanco Magnocentro 26 Fun & Fashion, Magnocentro 26, Interlomas Parque Duraznos, Bosque de Duraznos 39, Bosques de las Lomas Paseo Arcos Bosques, paseo de los Tamarindos 100, Bosques de las Lomas Centro Santa Fe, Vasco de Quiroga 3800, Santa Fe South Centro Coyoacan, Avenida Coyoacan 2000, Del Valle Plaza Universidad, Avenida Universidad 1000, Del Valle Galerías Insurgentes, Insurgentes Sur 1329, Del Valle Perisur, insurgentes Sur 4690, Jardines del Pedregal Galerías Coapa, Calzada del Hueso 519, Coapa Plaza Cuicuilco Plaza Loreto, Altamirano 46, San Angel Pabellón Altavista, Camino al Desierto de los Leones 52, San Angel Gran Sur, Periférico Sur 5550, Pedregal de Carrasco Outlet Malls Premium Outlets at Punta Norte, Northwest of Mexico City (State of Mexico) in the intersection of Periferico (Mexico Hwy #57) and the Chamapa La Venta highway, near Ciudad Satelite You will need a taxi or a car to get there. Las Plazas Outlet Lerma Mexico - Toluca highway Km. 50 in the intersection with Calzada Cholula in the City of Lerma, near Toluca. You will need a car to get there. Arts and Crafts Mercado de Curiosidades In Centro Historico. Mercado Insurgentes In Zona Rosa. The National Fund for the Development of Arts and Crafts (Fonart), Avenida Patriotismo 691, in Mixcoac, Avenida Paseo de la Reforma No. 116 in Colonia Juárez and Avenida Juarez 89 in Centro. Flea and Antique Markets Although street vendors can be found almost anywhere in Mexico City, the following are more "formal" flea markets selling handcrafts, furniture and antiques. Bazar del Sábado in San Angel. Every Saturday, artists show and sell their paintings in a beautiful, cobblestoned zone of the city. There are also stores where they sell handcrafts. Mercado de Artesanias in Coyoacan on Saturdays, featuring handicrafts from all over the country, and classes for kids. Plaza del Angel in Zona Rosa Mercado de Alvaro Obregon in Colonia Roma Sunday art market in the Monumento a la Madre Mercado de Antiguedades de Cuauhtemoc, near Centro Historico La Lagunilla and Tepito near Centro Historico La Lagunilla has some of the best antiques, and is a maze of interesting thing. Tepito is more for pirated CDs, stolen things, and knock-offs. WARNING: Be careful. Tepito is a very dangerous place. If your curiosity gets the better of you, at least dress down, go with someone else, and arrive early in the day when it's less crowded. If you don't speak Spanish it's probably better to stay away. The area is known to be home of drug lords and black market dealers. Supermarkets If you're staying longer you may want to buy groceries and food at any of the hundreds of Supermarkets. These are some of the most common: Chedraui Comercial Mexicana Gigante Recently bought, now "Soriana" Superama High end supermarket Wal-Mart Ethnic Grocery Stores For generally hard-to-find ingredients, such as vegetables and spices that are unusual in Mexico, try the Mercado de San Juan [39] (Ernesto Pugibet street, Salto del Agua metro station). You can even find exotic meats here, such as iguana, alligator, ostrich, and foie gras. Go to the cheese stand at the center of the market, and ask for a sample— the friendly owner will give you bread, wine, and samples of dozens of different kinds of cheese. Arabic Al Mayak Cuauhtemoc Avenue and Guanajuato, Colonia Roma. Owned by Lebanese businessmen, they sell ingredients and foodstuff. They also sell sweets and dry fruit. Korean Supermercado Seul Florencia Avenue and Hamburgo Street, Zona Rosa. Seoul Market Hamburgo 206, Zona Rosa. Uri Market Londres 234, Zona Rosa. Japanese Mikasa San Luis Potosi 170, get from Insurgentes Sur Avenue, between Medellin and Monterrey. Lots of Japanese food ingredients, candy and drinks Kokeshi Amores 1529, Colonia del Valle (between Parroquia street and Felix Cuevas Avenue (Eje 7). Mostly Japanese food stuff but they also sell other Asian foods. They also sell Japanese dinnerware. Tel. 55347131 Asian Chinatown strip south of Palacio de Bellas Artes and Alameda Central. Super Kise Division del Norte 2515, Del Carmen, Coyoacan. South of the city, they sell Korean, Chinese and Japanese groceries. Kosher Many food products in Mexico including milk are kosher compliant. If you're looking for specific products, try some stores in the Polanco neighborhood. At some Superama branches you would find kosher departments, especially the ones in Polanco, Tecamachalco and Santa Fe neighborhoods. Eat Although it is easy to assume that Mexico City is the world capital of tacos, you can find almost any kind of food in this city. There are regional specialties from all over Mexico as well as international cuisine, including Japanese, Chinese, French, Polish, Italian, Argentinean, Belgian, Irish, you name it. The main restaurant areas are located in Polanco, Condesa, Centro, Zona Rosa, along Avenida Insurgentes from Viaducto to Copilco and more recently Santa Fe. For superb Mexican cuisine you can try El Cardenal (Sheraton Centro Histórico), Los Girasoles (Tacuba 8), Aguila y Sol (Emilio Castelar 229), Izote (Masaryk 513) and, for something more affordable, Café Tacuba (Tacuba 28). Another great experience is to dine in an old converted hacienda: try Hacienda de los Morales (Vázquez de Mella 525), San Angel Inn (Diego Rivera 50) or Antigua Hacienda de Tlalpan (Calzada de Tlalpan 4619). There are Mexican chain restaurants that can be assumed to be safe and similar no matter where you are, including Vips, Toks, and the more traditional Sanborns, all reminiscent of Denny's in the United States. You can expect to pay between $100 to $150 per person. If you're on a budget, you can also try one of the myriad comida corrida (set menu) restaurants, frequented by many office workers. Most of these offer very good food, are usually safe, and should range between $35 to $60. Perhaps the most ubiquitous type of food almost anywhere in Mexico city are fast food outlets, located on the ground floor of a street-facing building, or puestas, street stands located on a sidewalk or almost anywhere there is room. These serve the usual tacos, burritos or tortas (filled bread rolls similar to a sub or sandwich), and they can be very cheap ($10 to $50). If you want to stuff your face with lots of real Mexican food at cheap prices then head over to La Merced (the central market, located on the pink line of the subway at the stop "Merced"). There are several restaurants as well as stands serving up some delicious food. Huaraches, which are something like giant tortillas with different toppings/fillings, are popular here, as are alambres. Another superb market is located a stone's throw from the Salto del Agua metro stop; Mercado San Juan Arcos de Belem. It is full of food stalls offering all the Mexican favourites, but find the one opposite the small bakers, which is located by one of the rear entrances on Calle Delicias , which serves the Torta Cubana. The people running it are amazingly welcoming and the food, especially the Cubana, is excellent. If you want something safe and boring, most American fast food chains have franchises here. You'll see McDonald's, Burger King, KFC, Pizza Hut, Domino's Pizza, TGI Friday's, Chili's, Dairy Queen, Subway, and yes, even Starbucks. These are all fairly affordable to Europeans/Americans and people from other richer countries but generally cost more than they do in the US, and aren't delicious. El Globo, a French-style bakery, has locations throughout the city selling both French and traditional Mexican pastries, like orejas (little ears), eclairs, empanadas, and rosca during New Year's. It can't be beat for a quick snack or bagful of pastries to eat later. Do not miss the chance to go to Panaderia Madrid (calle 5 de Febrero, one block off the main plaza in downtown Mexico). This is a very old and typical bakery, they will usually have fresh bread twice a day, but if there are a lot of customers they will bake as many as four times a day. Asian food restaurants are abundant, and the quality is good, and caters from cheap Chinese cafeterias to expensive and very good Japanese food. Note that Korean, Japanese and Chinese are most common cuisines in Mexico City, while Indian, Thai and Indonesian can be harder to find. Most sushi places, however, put far too much rice on their sushi rolls and not enough fish. Vegetarian alternatives are commonly available at larger restaurants. The magic phrases, for vegetarians, are "sin pollo" (no chicken), "sin carne" (no meat), "sin huevo" (no eggs) and "sin queso" (no cheese). If you can communicate this and then gesticulate to the menu, the waiter normally will give you suggestions. In regular restaurants, they will even try to edit an existing dish for you. Just make sure you are clear. Chile Rellenos are a definite standard in any restaurant for the vegetarian. Restaurant basics Tips— Tipping is expected, with 10% the standard for all restaurants. You can tip less or not tip at all for poor service. In Mexico, there is no difference in prices if you sit inside or outside, it is the same if you eat at the bar or sit at a table. "El Jarocho" (Centro Coyoacan) is an amazing place to go for coffee. They also sell pastries and other food. This place is incomparable to Starbucks. There are several locations in Coyoacan due to it's evergrowing popularity. Don't leave without trying Tacos al pastor Enchiladas Suizas Pozole Quesadillas Chilaquiles Huevos Rancheros Arrachera Micheladas Huaraches Alambres For a quick snack you can always try a tamal (steamed corn dough with chicken or pork) bought on the street or specialized shops, accompanied by a cup of atole (hot chocolate corn starch drink), which is the breakfast of the humble on their way to work. Drink The typical Mexican place to go to drink is the cantina, a bar where food is usually free, and you pay for drinks (exact policies and minimums vary). Cantinas serve a wide range of Mexican and foreign drinks, with prices usually reasonable compared to prices in the US, and you'll be continually served various Mexican food, such as tacos (you should ask for 'Botana'). If your tolerance for Mexican music (mariachi or otherwise), smoke-filled rooms, and lots of noise is low however, this may not be your kind of place. Cantinas are open moderately late, usually past midnight at the very least. However some cantinas, like La Victoria, near the Plaza Garibaldi, are also open at midday for lunch. In Mexico City you have an almost endless choice of options to party, so the best way to check it out safely is The Mexican Night Club Tour [40]which takes you to 4 clubs in one night with all entrance fees included and safe transportation from Zocalo to Condesa, Polanco and back to Zocalo. The idea of this tour is to meet travelers like you and to party all night long feeling safe. This tour takes place from Thursday to Saturday nights at 10:00PM at the entrance of Mexico City Hostel (Rep. de Brasil 8 Centro Historico). In addition, there are bars that play a combination of Spanish and English-language rock, electronic music, and some Latin/Caribbean music. These bars tend to close around 3-4AM. Club music mainly falls into three main categories, pop, rock and electronic music. The pop places generally play what's on the music charts, Latin pop, and sometimes traditional Mexican music, and are frequented by a younger (sometimes very young) audience, and are often more upper class. The rock places play rock in the wide sense, in English and Spanish. Most people are at least over 18 in these places. The electronica clubs, which attract everyone from Mexico City's large subculture of ravers and electronica fans, of all ages. Most clubs close late, 3-4AM at the earliest, and some are open until 7AM or 8AM. The best bet used to be the Zona Rosa, which has a large number of street bars with rock bands playing and a large selection of clubs but most of them are strip club and gay bars. Another good area is Polanco, particularly a street called Mazaryk, where you'll find plenty of good clubs but it is best to make a reservation, Bollé club is one posh club on that street . Be forewarned - entrance is judged on appearance and to get a table a minimum 2 bottle service is required, unless its a slow night [min. US$80 per bottle]. Posh and upper scale night clubs can be found in the Lomas area, particularly the Hyde, Shine, Sense and Disco Lomas Clubs, but be warned some of these could be extremely expensive, where the cover charge could range from 250 pesos upwards and bottles start at 130 USD. In addition, getting in could very difficult, as these are the most exclusive in town. There are also exclusive gay friendly clubs in that area with the same caracteristics Envy night club on palmas 500 and Made nightclub on chapultepec next the lake and the restaurant El Lago chapultepec. The other common Mexican-style thing to do when going out is to go dancing, usually to salsa, meringue, rumba, mambo, son, or other Caribbean/Latin music. This is considerably more fun if you're a somewhat competent dancer, but even complete beginners who don't mind making fools of themselves will likely enjoy it. Most dance places close late, 3-4AM is common. The legal drinking age is 18. It is illegal to consume alcohol in public ("open container"). This is strictly enforced and the penalty is at least 24 hours in jail. Take an identification card such as a copy of your passport. Sleep Embassy Suites hotel facing Cristobal Colon statue in Reforma. The city has literally hundreds of hotels in all price ranges, though the district you want to stay in will be a good indicator of price and quality. Zona Rosa is a tourist haven with a strong mid-range selection; the Polanco district is where high-end hotels thrive, and the Centro Histórico is home to plenty of budget hotels and backpacker hostels. A wide variety of hotels can also be found along Paseo de la Reforma. Budget Hostel Mexico City, Republica de Brasil No. 8. Mexico City Hostel [41] offers economic, comfortable accommodation for the backpacker or budget traveler during a backpacking trip to Mexico, both private rooms and dormitory style accommodation are available, located close to the Zócalo in the Historic Center of Mexico City. For 120 pesos you get breakfast, free internet and one bed in dorms. edit Hostal Virreyes, Calle Jose Maria Izazaga No. 8. Hostal Virreyes [42] offers excellent private rooms and adequate doorms and is located right next to the Salto Del Agua metro stop. Is also a stone's throw from a good market, Mercado San Juan Arcos de Belem. It has decent, well-priced internet access, free Wi-Fi, breakfast and a cinema club. The staff are really helpful and a security guard is present 24 hours. edit Hotel Habana, Rep De Cuba No. 77, Mexico City, Distrito Federal, CP. 06010, ☎ 5555181591. The Hotel Habana in the Calle República de Cuba has well-appointed rooms for a good price. edit Hotel Rio de Janeiro, Rep De Brasil, near Zocalo, Mexico City, Distrito Federal, CP. 06010, ☎ 5555181591. Decent rooms with TVs with local channels. You can get a room for 70 pesos(!!!) if you are by yourself and don't mind sharing a bathroom. The price for two people is only 90 pesos (less than $9 USD) with a shared bathroom. edit If you are on a low-budget, you can find hotels as low as $7 USD if you take a room with a shared bathroom. Most are centred in the Centro Historico and are very decent. Hostels are more expensive than getting your own private room with full facilities like a TV and restroom, but the cheap hotels are not listed on the internet and many foreigners jump into the hostels for a much worse value. The hostels are a good place to meet people but you should only stay there if you don't mind noise and sharing a restroom. There are plenty of other places to meet people besides hostels so be sure to look around before deciding to stay at one just because it has a sign in English. Mid-range Holiday Inn Zocalo, Av Cinco De Mayo 61 Col Centro Colonia Centro Mexico City 06000. Three star hotel that has an amazing rooftop balcony restaurant overlooking Zocalo Square. The rooms are small but comfortable, well furnished although the internet access in the lobby can be inconsistent. $102. edit Hotel Majestic, Av Madero 73, Centro Histórico, Mexico City 06000. While boasting an impressive tezontle stone facade, this two star hotel is let down by small rooms and staff that seem ambivalent. However, it is an unbeatable location and the terrace restaurant gives stunning panoramic views of the Zócalo. edit NH Centro Historico, Palma, 42 Centro, +52.55.51301850 [43]. The NH Centro Histórico is in the heart of the city of Mexico, only a few steps away from the historic 'Plaza de la Constitución' better known as “Zócalo”, and the magnificent historical 'Metropolitan Cathedral', the 'National Library' and 'Mexico City Museum'. The NH Centro Histórico offers the ideal starting point to visit the most important symbolic buildings and monuments. There are 2 other NH Hotels in Mexico City [44]. Melia Mexico Reforma, Paseo de la Reforma, 1, ☎ (52) 555 1285000 (melia.mexico.reforma@solmelia.com), [45]. Melia Mexico Reforma is on the recently renovated Paseo de la Reforma Avenue, near the financial, cultural and historic districts of Mexico City. edit Splurge Four Seasons Mexico City, Paseo de la Reforma 500 Colonia Juárez Mexico City 06600, [46]. Historic setting, built in a square around a large open-air courtyard containing restful tropical gardens with a fountain, sculptures, a cafe, and a restaurant. All rooms are fitted and finished to a high standard and great service from the staff, especially the concierge. edit JW Marriott Hotel Mexico City, Andres Bello 29 Mexico City 11560 Mexico, [47]. Situated in the trendy Polanco district, with great shopping and restaurants within walking distance, the JW Marriott delivers all expectations. The rooms are luxurious and comfortable, with exceptional detailing, and the staff goes out of their way to ensure that every request is catered to. edit Nikko Hotel, Campos Eliseos 204 Col. Polanco Mexico City 11560. Hosts some of the best Japanese restaurants in town and some art galleries worth visiting. Perfect location for restaurants and major museums. $183. edit Presidente Intercontinental Mexico City, Campos Eliseos 218 Mexico City, Distrito Federal 11560 Mexico. It's hard to miss this hotel which towers 42 stories high in a sleek, ultra modern design. All rooms featuring a view of the city or Chapultepec Park and feature a daily maid service, air conditioning, kitchenettes and cable television. The hotel itself has a car rental desk, health club and business center. $104. edit W Hotel Mexico City, Campos Eliseos 252 Mexico City 11560. The W Hotel displays its signature sexiness in Mexico city, with sleek designs, cherry red walls in the rooms and the traditional all white beds. Great for young professionals, families and mature customers may not appreciate the thumping techno music that accompanies them throughout the hotel. 353. edit Contact To stay in contact while traveling in México City. Phone If someone is calling you the country code is +52 then the area code is 55 then the 8 digit phone number. If you want to make a long distance call out of Mexico , you should dial the prefix 01 for national calls followed by the area code. If you are making an international long distance call, you must dial 00 followed by the country code, for example, if you're calling the U.S. you should dial 00+1 and the area code, if you're calling the U.K, dial 00+44 and the area code, and so on. If you want to use your cellular phone you can get your phone unlocked before you go. When you arrive in Mexico City, you can purchase a Télcel or Movistar Sim (GSM) card, called a "chip". Then you will get a Mexican Cell phone number. Remember this is a prepaid cellular option. You get free incoming calls from inside the city, but the roaming charges can easily build up if you travel to other cities. People calling you from long distance will need to dial in this format: +52 (55) plus 8 or 7 digit phone number. Mexico city, Guadalajara and Monterrey have 8 digit numbers, and 2 digit area codes. The rest of the country has 7 digit numbers and 3 digit area codes. Calling from a Mexican phone (either land or mobile) to a Mexican cell phone is called ¨El Que Llama Paga¨ meaning only the person making the call pays for the air time, and thus requires the 044 prefix before the 10 digit number composed of the area code and the mobile number to be dialed: land or mobile to Mexico City registered mobile would be 044 55 12345678. If you are calling to a mobile with a different area code, i.e. Acapulco area code 744 then you use the prefix 045, then the three digit area code, the seven digit mobile i.e. 045 744 1234567. This might seem confusing at first but you get easily accustomed to it. Another option is to buy a prepaid Mexican phone kit, they frequently include more air time worth than the kit actually costs, air time is called ¨Tiempo Aire¨. For Telcel these kits are called ¨Amigo Kit¨ for Movistar they are called ¨Movistar Prepago¨ and for Iusacell ¨Viva Kit¨ the you can just keep the phone as a spare for whenever you are in Mexico, there are no costs in between uses. These kits start at around 30 USD. Mobile Telephones There are four main cell phone operators in Mexico. Telcel The largest coverage in Mexico, using a GSM network. Movistar A GSM network with decent coverage in most cities. Iusacell (includes former Unefon network) A CDMA-based 3G network with coverage in most cities and large towns. Nextel Internet Mexico City has amazing access to the internet considering the availability in the rest of Latin America. There are several internet cafes throughout the city, many of them in Zona Rosa. Price varies from 10 to 20 pesos an hour. Look for the word 'Cyber' or 'CiberCafe' in order to find a place with internet access. Hot spots for wi fi connection to the internet are available in several places around the city, particularly in malls, coffee stores and restaurants. Most (if not all) of them are operated by the Mexican phone company Telmex through their Internet division Prodigy Movil. In order to be able to connect in those places, the user must be subscribed to the service, or buy a prepaid card known as "Tarjeta Multifon"; visitors coming from the US can access the service using their AT&T or T-Mobile Internet accounts. Cards can be bought at the Sanborns restaurant chain, Telmex stores and many stores that offer telephony related products. Radio Unfortunately there are no full-time English spoken radio stations in Mexico, however these are a few options to listen: Imagen 90.5 FM Features a twice-a-day English news program at 5:30 A.M. and 11:00 P.M. with a summary of the most important news around the globe. Ibero 90.9 FM University radio station that plays mainly indie-rock but also has cultural programs. Alfa 91.3 FM Broadcasts English language hit pop music. Beat 100.9 FM Electronic music station. Mix 106.5 FM Hits in English from the 80s, 90s, and nowadays pop/rock music. Universal 92.1 FM Old hits in English (70s, 80s). Newspapers With the exception of "The News", you won't find newspapers in English or other foreign languages in regular newsstands, however, you can find many at any Sanborns store. Many U.S. newspapers have subscriptions available in Mexico, including the Wall Street Journal , Today, the New York Times and the Miami Herald. Some of the most read local newspapers include: The News [48] English-language daily published in Mexico City. El Universal[49] The online version includes a good English section. Reforma[50] Diario Monitor [51] La Jornada [52] Renowned as politically left oriented. Milenio [53] Stay safe Travel in Mexico City is generally safe. Areas around the historic center are generally well-lit and patrolled in the early evening. Much of your travel within the city will be done via public transportation or walking. Mexico City is an immensely crowded place, and with any major metropolitan area, it is advised to be aware of your surroundings. Plan ahead - know where you are going and how you will arrive. Mexico City is quite hospitable, and people who work for hotels and other hospitality-oriented businesses will help. This will help in avoiding confusion, becoming lost or stranded. Also, you can ask a local for advice to get somewhere, though you should speak good Spanish to do this. In the Polanco, Sante Fe and Lomas districts, some police officers and many business people and younger children speak English, as it is very common to learn in school. However police officers in Mexico get paid a third of what New York City police officers get and some rely on bribes and corruption to make more money (however, never offer a bribe first since usually an officer will at least go through the formality of assessing a fine). The historic center and other major sites often have specially trained tourist police that are more helpful than ordinary transit cops. Catching cabs in the street can be dangerous, since free-range cabs are not accountable to anyone. Taxi robberies, so-called "express kidnappings", where the victim is robbed and then taken on a trip to various ATMs to max out their credit cards, do occur. However, be aware that 95% of total kidnapping victims are nationals, so your odds of being taken are very slim, but you should always use your common sense. Protect your personal information. There are many pickpockets in Mexico City. Purses and bulky, full pockets are quite attractive. Do not keep your passports, money, identification, and other important items hanging out for someone to steal. Use a money belt or place these items in a hotel safe, or tuck them away inside your clothes.The Metro or Subway system can get extremely crowded, which creates opportunities for pickpockets on cars that are often standing room only. Do not show money in front of others, this generally attracts pickpockets. Do not leave anything of value inside your car, always use the trunk, even things that could be considered to hold something of value (for example, an empty gift box) will attract unwanted attention to your car and might prompt a broken window. The Mexico City Government recently opened a specialized prosecution office (Ministerio Público in Spanish) for foreigners that find themselves affected by robberies or other crime situations. It is in Victoria Street 76, Centro Historico. Multilingual staff are available. In case of emergency Dial 066, the number for all emergencies, (fire, police and medical). Cope Some people may consider Mexico City to have a bad reputation, in terms of crime statistics, air pollution, and on more contrived issues, such as earthquakes. However, crime and pollution levels are down over the last decade and you shouldn't face any trouble within the tourist areas. As in any large city, there are areas that are better to be avoided, especially at night, and precautions to take, but Mexico City is not particularly dangerous. When walking in the city you could be approached by people. Usually they are just trying to sell something or begging for a few coins, but if you aren't interested, it is not considered insulting to just ignore them. Also, if someone of importance (such as a police officer) approaches you, they will definitely let you know. If you do get approached by a police officer, understand that there are three different types: the Policia (Police), who are usually driving around the city with their lights flashing; the Policia Auxiliar (Blue uniform)(Auxiliary Police), who are like security guards; and the Policia de Transito (Brown Uniform) (Traffic Police) who simply direct traffic. Remember most Mexicans are very curious in regards of foreigners and are willing to help. If in need for directions, try to ask young people, who may speak a little English. Driving Many locals (not all of them, of course) have terrible driving habits as a result of the frequent traffic jams in the city. Traffic signals are more an ornament than what they were made for. When traffic is not present, particularly at night, locals tend to speed up so be careful when changing lanes. Street names and road signs may not be present everywhere so it is strongly advisable to ask for directions before driving your car. Potholes, fissures, and very large-yet-unanticipated speed-bumps ("topes") are common on the roads, so exercise some caution. Even at a small crawl, these can severely damage your car, especially in the backroads between towns in the Southern area. It should be avised that when driving, a fast succesion of white lines cutting the road perpendicular means a 'tope' is approaching and you should slow down immediately. When off the main roads, especially in the colonias, maneuvering in the narrow streets and alleys can be tricky. Often a paved road turns to cobblestone (in high-end neighborhoods) or dirt (if this happens, you've gone way off the tourist areas). Also, some colonia streets are blocked off behind gates. If you are driving through a housing development, you should be ware of children, in Mexico, you are expected to know that there might be kids playing and they tend to run on the pavement as if they were in their backyard. You should also be mindful of people on bicycles and motorcycles alike, because they tend to drive in the narrow spaces between cars. The best thing to do is to yield to them. Trolleys have the right of way on their assigned lane, since they cannot switch lanes as easily. Those who are used to having a burm or paved area to the side of the road to pull off onto or drift onto while driving will quickly notice that the berm is missing on many roads and freeways such as Viaducto and Periferico, if you go off the side of the road, there will be a four to six inch drop off of the pavement which will be difficult to recover from. Driving in Mexico City should be avoided if at all possible. It should also be noted that in high density areas such as Centro Historico, Mexico City, there is no street parking available between business hours. Even the best of plans can go wrong when you find that the path that you have chosen and planned out for months is closed when you arrive at your proposed exit at 65 mph and there is a detour onto some other path with no markings or road signs with everyone going as fast as they can go. At that point you may want to exit immediately and regroup before you end up miles from where you planned to exit. Maps and road signs likely will be lacking any usable information in a situation like this and your best bet may be to navigate by the seat of your pants a parallel route to the one you found closed. Drinking Mexico City's alcohol laws are harsh; although in many nightclubs, bars and restaurants it is common for minors to drink without proving their age as long as they appear to be over 18. It is also permitted for minors to drink alcohol if they are in the company of an adult who is willing to take responsibility. Drinking alcoholic beverages in the street is prohibited--doing so can get you in trouble with the police. Drunk driving is also strictly prohibited and strongly punished, though it seems highly common in any case. The police have incorporated random alcohol tests on streets near bars and clubs, and if you test positive, you could be arrested and spend 36 hours in jail. The system is very efficient, and you will sometimes see a stopped car or truck with a policeman interrogating the occupants. Smoking Smoking inside public and private buildings is strictly prohibited by law. Restaurants used to have smoking and non-smoking sections, but recent laws have banned smoking in any public enclosed space. Fines can be steep, so if you want to smoke in a restaurant it is best to ask the waiter before lighting up. Of course, going outside is always an option. Smoking light drugs, such as Marihuana, is prohibited and offenders could be imprisoned if found in possesion of more than one personal dose. Embassies Mexico City is home to a large number of embassies. Embassy of Canada, Embassy of Canada Schiller 529, Col. Bosque de Chapultepec (Polanco)Del. Miguel Hidalgo 11580 Mexico City, D.F. Mexico, ☎ (55) 5724.7900 (mxico@international.gc.ca, fax: (55) 5724.7980), [54]. edit Embassy of China, Av. Río de la Magdalena 172, Colonia Tizapán – San Ángel, Delegación Álvaro Obregón, C.P. 01090, ☎ +52 55 56164324, +52 55 56164309, +52 55 56164239 (Consularchinaenmexico88@yahoo.com). Mon-Fri: 9-13, phone service 16-19. edit Embassy of the United States, Embajada de Estados Unidos Paseo de la Reforma 305 Col. Cuauhtemoc 06500 Mexico, D.F, ☎ (01-55) 5080-2000 (fax: (01-55) 5080-2005), [55]. edit Get out Oaxtepec— Oaxtepec is a short distance away from Mexico City and is a great place to get out of the hectic city and do some swimming. The climate is constantly warm and sunny and there is a very affordable and very fun waterpark (only half is open on weekdays...on the weekends the rest of the park is open). There are plenty of lodging options and most include access to a club house with a sauna and an olympic pool and diving pool. A bus leaves every 10 minutes from the Taxqueña bus station and costs 81 pesos through OCC. Cuernavaca— Cuernavaca is the capital city of the state of Morelos. Its only 45 minutes away from Mexico City and is known world-wide known as "The City of Eternal Spring" due to its excellent template climate with an annual average of 20ºC. Taxco— Famous for its beautiful colonial architecture and narrow cobbled streets. Teotihuacan— The ancient city of giant pre-Colombian pyramids. Puebla— UNESCO world heritage place for its colonial architecture and site of the battle with the French army in the mid 1800's. The city is known throughout Mexico for it’s cuisine, it’s worthwhile to take a one day trip from Mexico City to do some sight-seen and sample some of the food. Many good restaurants are conveniently located n